the daily wants of its people. Colonists are naturally tillers of the soil, and an agricultural community cannot, as a rule, guarantee them the necessary sales. . .

...

Having thus discussed the material requirements essential for a country engaged in colonial enterprises, it is now proper briefly to consider two other necessary attributes. A race without the military and naval spirit is ill fitted for these tasks. The possession of colonies involves the control and protection of distant lands; it implies the maintenance of order within their boundaries, as well as the subjugation of the native, barbarous, or semi-civilized tribes; it means the management of many halfexplored regions; and, above all, it requires their defense against the world. Where a people would not meet one enemy on its own borders or shores, it will encounter many foes in the vicinity of its dependencies.... The inhabitants of the mother country must therefore always be ready, at command, to render service in behalf of her wards, or, as frequently happens, to protect their own land against the foreign aggressor to whom some territorial dispute offers the desired pretext. On the other hand, well-situated possessions may thwart blows aimed at the metropolis. Witness the Greek colonies, which for centuries served as effective barriers to the attempted invasions of the Asiatic hordes directed against their central governments. With the more complex interdependence of races the probability of discord, by reason of distant dominions, has in modern ages greatly increased. The military and seafaring disposition is therefore more and more essential. Such are briefly the requisites indispensable to any nation to enable it successfully to pursue a colonial policy.

439. Phoenician colonization. The earliest colonization of importance was that of the Phoenician merchants.

The Phoenician establishments throughout the Mediterranean were not only important as commercial stations, but even the more as outposts of Eastern civilization, diffusing among the aborigines of the West the culture and education of the most enlightened nations of that age; while their own knowledge of the world and conception of the universe were in turn vastly developed. As the first colonizing people, the Phœnicians conferred unreckoned and incalculable benefits upon future generations. In extending their commerce to the uttermost ends of the earth, they unconsciously bore with their ships a cargo immeasurably more precious than that of merchandise and silver. They transported the elementary rudiments of learning to the untutored tribes of the West, and thence they received not less valuable information of the breadth of the seas and of the uncounted millions of mankind who were not

bounded or confined by any false or imaginary circle of limitation between the gods and men.

...

The greatest bequest of the Phoenicians to posterity was their broad diffusion of the elements of civilization. Their method was not the less remarkable. They stand the first — in antiquity perhaps the only race who by peaceful means attained world-wide supremacy; for, not only by sea, but likewise on land, they were the acknowledged sovereign people of their times. Even today in daily life, their activity, their skill, their inventive genius, and their commercial instinct are memorable; and not the least of the lessons which they taught is the theory of colonization.

440. Bonds uniting Greece and her colonies. While Greek colonies became in many respects practically independent political units, numerous ties united them to the homeland.

The principal bond between the mother state and the colonies was perhaps religion. The people literally carried their worship with them; for, before departure, they took a light from the sacred fire of the tutelary deity, and this they transported to ignite the flame in some other remote temple to be erected by their hands.

The public games likewise aroused a strong feeling of union. Not only did neighboring communities there contend with each other, but competitors for prizes came from afar. During their continuance, war was suspended and enemies at arms met as rivals in athletic sports. . . .

The Greeks, wherever wandering, preserved their own language and laws. . . . The medium of common speech afforded decided advantages to the widely scattered colonists; it enabled them to read the same literature and to study the same philosophy; the great number of renowned men, born, educated, and residing in the various dependencies, who became distinguished in letters, morals, history, science, and art, bears witness to this community of thought.

The individual Greek cities enjoyed absolute political freedom with complete control over their local and foreign affairs. Even when entering an alliance created among themselves in certain localities, they never yielded the doctrine of home rule, and were loath to surrender to any central executive the direction of their exterior policy. .

The leagues were outgrowths of necessity; dread of conquest was the motive for their foundation. Wherever the federation was the strongest, the fear of invasion was the greatest. . . .

Separated from the fatherland by vast distances and dangerous seas, the Greek colonists were cast upon their own resources. Their innate sense of self-respect and resolute will incited them to the fullest degree of their capacity and strength.

441. Colonies in the Middle Ages. The characteristic features of medieval colonization follow :

The colonization of this epoch, it should be at once stated, is in its main features essentially different from any other. In the first instance, municipalities originally without tributary territories were its promoters: trade was its sole object; the wars waged and the conquests effected were believed to be its necessary accompaniment; they were simply auxiliary. The emigrants, leaving the metropolis, were absolutely limited to the number required to conduct the business in the locality whither they were bound; the establishments created were thus, in the majority of cases, scattered outposts, and exclusively consisted of merchants residing in a distant town. The political or social influence exerted by the colonists in the region of their abode was minimum and temporary. The existence of these dependencies was entirely for the advantage of the parent state, which, while compelled by events to defend them incessantly against inveterate foes, expected to draw from them a profit far greater than would be merely commensurate with the cost of their maintenance.

442. Periods of Spanish colonization. The importance of Spanish colonization and the main periods into which her colonial activity may be divided are indicated in the following:

The history of Spanish colonization is memorable by reason of representing one of the two leading types of colonial enterprise. Spain and England exemplify in this field distinct methods of thought and action. Since the rise of Spanish dominion on the western hemisphere one or the other of these powers has controlled the greater number of dependencies. While in truth Holland and France have, by their respective policies, exercised potent influences, still, for design and execution, Spain, first in time, and subsequently England stand unrivaled. . . .

The chronicles of Spanish colonization may well be divided into four sections; the epoch of discovery from 1492 to 1542; the era of monopoly from 1542 to the end of the seventeenth century; the season of reform, almost measured by the eighteenth century; and the period of decadence, approximately corresponding to the nineteenth century.

443. Independence of Spanish colonies in America. The general conditions leading up to the separation of the colonies in America from Spain and the completeness of this break are well stated in the following:

Spain, remaining from 1500 to 1700 dormant, almost inanimate, languished by reason of inactivity; not until a foreign prince in the latter year mounted the throne was this decadence perceived. When the nation awoke, it found its slow-moving, heavy vessels outdistanced and outnumbered by the lighter and swifter craft of the Dutch and the English. Formidable competition was then to be met; but the Spanish people were as sluggish as their fleets, for they wrestled first, and perhaps the most, with themselves to grant their own reforms. The merchants of Seville, enriched by the ancient system and consequently wedded to it, were the stubborn opponents of more liberal principles. Likewise the officeholders were corrupt; any measure which threatened the illgained profits of this class encountered strenuous antagonism. The Spaniards were therefore nearly a century in adopting those methods of progress which, if promptly and generously inaugurated, might have reassured their sovereignty. Spain indeed showed its impotence in its inability to suppress smuggling, which, during a hundred years at least, was carried on in a practically open and unrestrained manner. Immense profits and undue avarice, resulting in the idleness, profligacy, and corruption of all grades of society, were the rule.

At the end of the eighteenth century revolution swept over North America and Western Europe. The national edifice of Spain was destined to totter before Napoleon. The colonies seized the opportunity which they had evidently been long and expectantly awaiting. Spain was placed in the awkward predicament of needing English help against the usurper of the crown, while England, for business purposes, was secretly friendly to the independence of these possessions. The Spaniards were obliged to seek as an ally one of the worst foes of their colonial policy. The occasion, so propitiously presented, was welcomed by their American subjects, who, after protracted and varied struggles, succeeded in throwing off the yoke.

With the separation of the colonies, Spain not merely lost their territory, but also at the same time its trade and influence with them. Unlike many other countries which, shorn of political authority over dependencies, still retain moral and mercantile supremacy, this nation was deprived of them all.

444. General nature of Dutch colonization. In contrast to the earlier Spanish and Portuguese colonial methods, the Dutch system exhibited certain striking differences.

Dutch colonization, not less in its rise than in its development, presents many peculiarities. For the first time in modern history, consideration. must be given to the efforts of a republic which, though passing through