bear fruit in the establishment of closer relations and a better understanding with the natives.

Of all European powers, Russia is in some respects the most successful as a colonizer in Asia. Herself semi-Oriental, she is not so far above the various tribes of the Asiatic plains as to misunderstand them. The Russians have an insinuating manner and great tact in diplomatic intercourse, and at the same time a political system the splendor and concentrated majesty of which impress the Oriental mind far more than do the simple business methods of the Briton. They know when to use corruption, when to use force, and when to soothe with honors and decorations. Above all, their military and administrative officers fraternize with the leaders of the conquered peoples, and a feeling of solidarity between conquered and conquerors is the result. Indeed, many writers seriously question whether any other power can be permanently successful as a colonizer in Asia, when opposed by the craft and ability of Russia. Her perfect mastery of Oriental diplomacy, her ability to manage the most refractory materials, is proved by her recent unforeseen successes at Peking. It is by combining strength of purpose, irresistible will, and the show of great force, with the milder methods of corruption and official blandishment, that Russia is so successful in the Orient.

454. Relation of England to colonial enterprise. A recent English writer summarizes as follows the stages in the development of England's colonial attitude:

The progressive character of our home development in political liberty and order has been reflected in our imperial history. The following brief summary shows how the place of the State in our colonial enterprise has varied with the stage of growth of our political constitution at home:

(1) The Adventure period: typified by Raleigh-the State favors and assists colonization.

(2) Beginning of Imperial assertion: Cromwell- the State directs colonization.

(3) The Empire a basis for Trade: Chatham the State an instrument for extending Trade colonies.

(4) Exploration: Cook-the State an instrument for discovery of new lands.

(5) Trade pure and simple: Cobden and Bright the State dispensed with and colonies disregarded.

(6) Discharge of Duty: Mill- the State again found necessary. (7) Imperialism recognized: Beaconsfield - the State widened and England's imperial position reasserted.

455. Constitution of the British Empire League. The growth of common interests among the self-governing portions of the British Empire has led to the imperial federation movement. In 1895 the British Empire League was formed, the objects of which are set forth in its constitution as follows:

1. The Association to be called The British Empire League.

2. It shall be the primary object of the League to secure the permanent unity of the empire.

3. The following to be among the other principal objects of the League:

(a) To promote trade between the United Kingdom, the Colonies, and India, and to advocate the holding of periodical meetings of representatives from all parts of the empire for the discussion of matters of general commercial interest, and the consideration of the best means of expanding the national trade.

(b) To consider how far it may be possible to modify any laws or treaties which impede the freedom of action in the making of reciprocal trade arrangements between the United Kingdom and the colonies, or between two or more British colonies or possessions.

(c) To promote closer intercourse between the different portions of the empire by the establishment of cheaper and, where required, more direct steam, postal, and telegraphic communication, preference being given to routes not traversing foreign territory.

(d) To develop the principles on which all parts of the empire may best share in its general defense; endeavoring to bring into harmony public opinion at home and in the colonies on this subject, and to devise a more perfect coöperation of the military and naval forces of the empire with a special view to the due protection of the trade routes.

(e) To assimilate as far as local circumstances permit the laws relating to copyright, patents, legitimacy, and bankruptcy throughout the empire.

4. The League shall use every constitutional means to bring about the objects for which it is established, and shall invite the support of men of all shades of political opinion throughout the empire.

5. The League shall advocate the establishment of periodical conferences to deal with such questions as may appear ripe for consideration, on the lines of the London Conference of 1887 and the Ottawa Conference of 1894.

456. Imperialists and anti-imperialists in the United States. The recent colonial expansion of the United States created a wide

diversity of opinion, and threatened for a time to become a leading issue in American politics.1

While the public as a whole hesitated between respect for its cherished traditions and the allurements of the new prospects, the more partisan on both sides wrangled fiercely over the question whether the country should or should not retain its new acquisitions. The two points of view are usually called the Imperialist and the Anti-imperialist. . . .

In the long and bitter disputes as to what should be done with the new insular possessions, argument centered on the retention of the Philippines..

Amidst the multitude of conflicting statements at this time, we can recognize a few main contentions which reappear again and again. In the first place, the Anti-imperialists asserted that there were plenty of unsolved problems at home to which the nation should devote all its energies instead of squandering them elsewhere, especially as the Americans had no experience in colonial matters. . . . But the fiercest and most effective attacks of the Anti-imperialists were based on the charge that the new policy was an abandonment, not only of the wise traditions of the fathers of the republic, but of the noble ideals which had made the Union honored throughout the world. . . .

The advocates of a policy of expansion met the assertion that, according to American ideals, government should be by the consent of the governed, with the declaration that this was true only when the governed were capable of taking care of themselves; that, when they were not, the progress of the governed - which meant also the advancement of civilization was more important than their consent.

The charge that the acquisition of colonial possessions was contrary to the traditional policy of the United States was met in one of two ways, either by admitting its truth but declaring that the time had now come for a change, or by denying the historical accuracy of the statement. According to the writers who support the latter view, colonization has been the dominant characteristic of the whole growth of the country.

457. Instructions to the Philippine Commission. The following extract is taken from President McKinley's instructions to the Philippine Commission, and illustrates the attitude of the United States to its dependencies:

Without hampering them by too specific instructions, they should in general be enjoined, after making themselves familiar with the conditions and needs of the country, to devote their attention in the first instance 1 Copyright, 1908, by The Macmillan Company.

to the establishment of municipal governments, in which the natives of the islands, both in the cities and in the rural communities, shall be afforded the opportunity to manage their own local affairs to the fullest extent of which they are capable. . . .

The next subject in order of importance should be the organization of government in the larger administrative divisions corresponding to counties, departments, or provinces, in which the common interests of many or several municipalities falling within the same tribal lines, or the same natural geographical limits, may best be subserved by a common administration.

...

That in all cases the municipal officers, who administer the local affairs of the people, are to be selected by the people, and that wherever officers of more extended jurisdiction are to be selected in any way natives of the islands are to be preferred, and if they can be found competent and willing to perform the duties, they are to receive the offices in preference to any others.

In all the forms of government and administrative provisions which they are authorized to prescribe, the commission should bear in mind that the government which they are establishing is designed not for our satisfaction, or for the expression of our theoretical views, but for the happiness, peace, and prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands. ... The people of the islands should be made plainly to understand that there are certain great principles of government which have been made the basis of our governmental system, which we deem essential to the rule of law and the maintenance of individual freedom, and of which they have, unfortunately, been denied the experience possessed by us: that there are also certain practical rules of government which we have found to be essential to the preservation of these great principles of liberty and law, and that these principles and these rules of government must be established and maintained in their islands for the sake of their liberty and happiness, however much they may conflict with the customs or laws of procedure with which they are familiar. . . .

It will be the duty of the commission to promote and extend, and, as they find occasion, to improve the system of education already inaugurated by the military authorities. In doing this they should regard as of first importance the extension of a system of primary education which shall be free to all, and which shall tend to fit the people for the duties of citizenship and for the ordinary avocations of a civilized community. This instruction should be given in the first instance in every part of the islands in the language of the people...

The main body of the laws which regulate the rights and obligations of the people should be maintained with as little interference as possible.

IV. FORMS OF COLONIAL GOVERNMENT

458. Classification of colonies. Several bases for the classification of colonies are suggested in the following: 1

Colonies are classified, according to their method of origin and acquisition, into four leading groups: 1, those created or acquired by military force; 2, those engaged in agricultural pursuits, where farming is the main occupation of the inhabitants; 3, those employed in commerce or trade, consisting chiefly of a few merchants, sent out from the parent state to carry on the barter and exchange of commodities with the natives of the region in which they reside; and 4, those in which the plantation system prevails, devoted to the cultivation of such products of the soil as cannot for climatic reasons be grown in the home country. As illustrations of these various classes, the Roman establishments may be cited, in antiquity, as colonies by conquest; in modern times the Spanish possessions in Central and South America belonged to the same type. Among agricultural colonies the United States while a British dependencyand Australia may be reckoned. The principal commercial colonies are those under the administration of trading companies, such as formerly the Dutch and English domains in East India and in that vicinity; of plantation colonies those in the West Indies and in the torrid zones of Africa are the most important.

Nor should a fifth order be entirely forgotten; reference is made to penal stations, to such as those whither England used to deport her criminals and to which France still to-day sends certain of her offenders. . .

In reality, another simpler, but much broader, classification of colonial origin may be made by dividing colonies into those voluntarily and those involuntarily founded by the metropolis; or rather those intentionally established by the government and those unconsciously created by the people. Among those organized under official direction all distant military strongholds must be included; likewise commercial stations, at least in their inception; plantation and penal settlements are also comprised in this same group. Agricultural communities and a certain portion of trading establishments alone are due to individual initiative, without any material assistance from the mother country, and frequently, as history shows, without her coöperation. As belonging to the class of colonies directly inaugurated by the state, those of Rome and of Spain may be mentioned; to the number indirectly erected or aided by its authority, those of Holland and England in and around the Indian Ocean; while

1 Copyright, 1900, by Henry C. Morris.