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to the division constituted by personal effort, those of Greece and the North American and the Australian territories, past and present, of Great Britain may be assigned.

459. Spheres of influence. An important recent method of indirect colonial expansion is described in the following: 1

In recent years a far-reaching and radical change has come over the entire field of colonial enterprise. The economic energies of the western nations have been stimulated to such an extent that the more restricted markets of the old commercial world, as well as the opportunities it offers for capitalistic investment, are no longer adequate. Moreover, both commerce and capital have become nationalized, have been taught to look to the state for assistance, and to adjust their own activities and policies to the upbuilding of national power. Far more than was ever before conceivable, the national state has become the exponent of the sum of energies within its bounds. . .

In this era of direct political expansion, the older methods of colonial growth have come to be considered too slow and uncertain. The gradual development of trade and industrial enterprise, the civilizing influence of missionaries, are not sure enough means of gaining a firm foothold in new regions, but these individual forces must be seconded, and even anticipated, by the state. As each nation is loath, for fear of the others, to trust solely to the natural process of colonial evolution, they have all joined in an artificial division of the unoccupied world, and in the creation of political authority over territories within which no economic activities have as yet been developed.

460. Colonial protectorates. The essential features of a colonial protectorate are as follows:

When a state has succeeded in excluding other nations from the opportunity of exerting political influence within a certain region, it may then set to work and develop its own authority therein, either by occupation, by annexation, or by the establishment of protectorates. The latter is the favorite mode of transition from the negative sphere of influence to a positive direct control. . . .

There are certain essential features and conditions which may be found wherever the colonial protectorate exists. These may be summarized as follows: first, that the native authorities continue to reign, and that the local institutions and customs shall not be interfered with; second, that the protected state has political relations with the protecting 1 Copyright, 1902, by The Macmillan Company.

power only, and that it relinquishes the right of declaring war; third, that it admits a political resident as representative of the protecting power, and thus enables the latter to exercise a personal influence upon the government of the protected state; fourth, that while, as a rule, native laws and customs are permitted to continue in force, they shall yield when the imperial interests absolutely demand. The responsibility which the paramount power assumes will not permit it to tolerate within the protected territory gross misrule, hopeless indebtedness, or barbarous practices which would offend the elementary ideas of humanity. In general, it may be said that international law looks upon colonial protected territory as a part of the protecting state, and holds the latter responsible for conditions within it and for acts emanating from it; on the other hand, with respect to municipal law, colonial protectorates are usually treated as distinct from the national territory, and as not sharing the legal institutions of the protecting state, nor as subjected to its direct legislative authority.

461. The relation of the United States and Cuba. The following provisions, known as the Platt Amendment, were incorporated in the Army Appropriation Act of 1901. They were accepted by Cuba as an appendix to its constitution.

That the government of Cuba shall never enter into any treaty or other compact with any foreign power or powers which will impair or tend to impair the independence of Cuba, nor in any manner authorize or permit any foreign power or powers to obtain by colonization or for military or naval purposes or otherwise, lodgment in or control over any portion of said island.

That said government shall not assume or contract any public debt, to pay the interest upon which, and to make reasonable sinking fund provision for the ultimate discharge of which, the ordinary revenues of the island, after defraying the current expenses of government shall be inadequate.

That the government of Cuba consents that the United States may exercise the right to intervene for the preservation of Cuban independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life, property, and individual liberty, and for discharging the obligations with respect to Cuba imposed by the Treaty of Paris on the United States, now to be assumed and undertaken by the government of Cuba.

That all Acts of the United States in Cuba during its military occupancy thereof, are ratified and validated, and lawful rights acquired thereunder shall be maintained and protected.

That the government of Cuba will execute, and as far as necessary extend, the plans already devised or other plans to be mutually agreed upon for the sanitation of the cities of the island, to the end that a recurrence of epidemic and infectious diseases may be prevented, thereby assuring protection to the people and commerce of Cuba, as well as to the commerce of the southern ports of the United States and the people residing therein.

That the Isle of Pines shall be omitted from the proposed constitutional boundaries of Cuba, the title thereto being left to future adjustment by treaty.

That to enable the United States to maintain the independence of Cuba, and to protect the people thereof, as well as for its own defense, the government of Cuba will sell or lease to the United States lands necessary for coaling or naval stations, at certain specified points, to be agreed upon with the President of the United States.

That by way of further assurance the government of Cuba will embody the foregoing provisions in a permanent treaty with the United States.

462. Establishment of crown government in India. The interests of the East India Company in India were resigned to the crown in 1858. The following proclamation, issued by the crown in the same year, states England's policy toward the colony :

Whereas, for divers weighty reasons, we have resolved, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in Parliament assembled, to take upon ourselves the government of the territories in India heretofore administered in trust for us by the Honorable East India Company.

Now, therefore, we do by these presents notify and declare that, by the advice and consent aforesaid, we have taken upon ourselves the said government; and we hereby call upon all our subjects within the said territories to be faithful, and to bear true allegiance to us, our heirs and successors, and to submit themselves to the authority of those whom we may hereafter, from time to time, see fit to appoint to administer the government of our said territories, in our name and on our behalf. . . .

We desire no extension of our present territorial possessions; and, while we will permit no aggression upon our dominions or our rights to be attempted with impunity, we shall sanction no encroachment on those of others. We shall respect the rights, dignity, and honor of native princes as our own; and we desire that they, as well as our own subjects, should enjoy that prosperity and that social advancement which can only be secured by internal peace and good government. ...

We declare it to be our royal will and pleasure that none be in any wise favored, none molested or disquieted, by reason of their religious faith or observances, but that all shall alike enjoy the equal and impartial protection of the law. . . .

And it is our further will that, so far as may be, our subjects, of whatever race or creed, be freely and impartially admitted to offices in our service, the duties of which they be qualified, by their education, ability, and integrity, duly to discharge.

We know, and respect, the feelings of attachment with which the natives of India regard the lands inherited by them from their ancestors, and we desire to protect them in all rights connected therewith, subject to the equitable demands of the State; and we will that, generally, in framing and administering the law, due regard be paid to the ancient rights, usages, and customs of India. . .

When, by the blessing of Providence, internal tranquillity shall be restored, it is our earnest desire to stimulate the peaceful industry of India, to promote works of public utility and improvement, and to administer its government for the benefit of all our subjects resident therein. In their prosperity will be our strength, in their contentment our security, and in their gratitude our best reward.

463. Self-governing colonies. The following extract describes the position and powers of England's most important possessions, which are practically self-governing : 1

All the great English settlement colonies have, therefore, attained to self-government, and have developed an almost independent political life. The connection with the mother country is maintained, not by compulsion or the fear of superior force but through a spirit of accommodation between the home and the colonial governments, and a rational endeavor to respect and advance their mutual interests. Thus the colonies are enabled to benefit by the prestige of association with a great empire, without being called upon for any serious sacrifices. The internal affairs, and in fact almost the entire polity of the colonial commonwealths, are left free from interference by the mother country. . . . The administration of the public lands has been turned over to them completely; they have been permitted to develop their own tariff policy and to negotiate commercial treaties with foreign nations; and while, of course, the general political relations of the colonies to the outside world are determined by the arrangements of the mother country, the colonial governments are always consulted before any important step involving their interests is taken.

1 Copyright, 1902, by The Macmillan Company.

The self-governing colonies of Great Britain have often been compared to international protectorates, and it admits of no doubt that they are in some respects very similar. In both, the foreign relations are controlled by the paramount state, while complete autonomy exists as to internal affairs. .

Though the future of the self-governing colonies is uncertain, it is safe to predict that they will not again allow the mother country to encroach upon their internal autonomy, and their renewed subjection is not to be thought of. Whether they will continue in some form of federation with the mother country, or whether they will sooner or later claim complete sovereignty, depends entirely upon how far the basis of common race and civilization can be supplemented by lasting economic interests.

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