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RUSSIA.

The

Emperor against the decisions of the Senate. Constitution and Government.-The The second of the great colleges or boards government of Russia is an absolute hereditary of government is the Ruling Senate, or "Pramonarchy. The whole legislative, executive, vitelstvuyuschiy Senat," established by Peter I. and judicial power is united in the Emperor, in the year 1711. The functions of the Senate whose will alone is law. There are, however, are partly of a deliberative and partly of an certain rules of government which the sover- executive character. To be valid a law must eigns of the present reigning house have be promulgated by the Senate. It is also the acknowledged as binding. The chief of these high court of justice for the Empire. The is the law of succession to the throne, which, Senate is divided into nine departments or according to a decree of the Emperor Paul, of sections, which all sit at St. Petersburg, two the year 1797, is to be that of regular descent, of them being Courts of Cassation. Each by the right of primogeniture, with preference department is authorized to decide in the last of male over female heirs. This decree an- resort upon certain descriptions of cases. nulled a previous one, issued by Peter I., Feb- senators are mostly persons of high rank, or ruary 5, 1722, which ordered each sovereign who fill high stations; but a lawyer of emito select his successor to the throne from nence presides over each department, who among the members of the imperial family, represents the Emperor, and without whose irrespective of the claims of primogeniture. signature its decisions would have no force. Another fundamental law of the realm pro- In the plenum, or general meeting of several claimed by Peter I. is that every sovereign of sections, the Minister of Justice takes the Russia, with his consort and children, must be chair. Besides its superintendence over the a member of the orthodox Greek Church. The courts of law, the Senate examines into princes and princesses of the imperial house, the state of the general, administration of according to a decree of Alexander I., must the Empire, and has power to make remonobtain the consent of the Emperor to any mar- strances to the Emperor. A special departriage they may contract; otherwise the issue ment consisting of seven members is intrusted of such union cannot inherit the throne. By with judgments in political offenses, and an ancient law of Russia, the heir-apparent is another (six members) with disciplinary judgheld to be of age at the end of the sixteenth ments against officials of the crown. year, and the other members of the reigning family with the completed twentieth year.

The third college, established by Peter I. in the year 1721, is the Holy Synod, and to it is committed the superintendence of the religious affairs of the Empire. It is composed of the three metropolitans (St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kieff), the archbishops of Georgia (Caucasus), and of Poland (Kholm and Warsaw), and several bishops sitting in turn. All its decisions run in the Emperor's name, and have no force till approved by him. The President of the Holy Synod is the Metropolitan of Novgorod and St. Petersburg.

The administration of the Empire is entrusted to four great boards, or councils, possessing separate functions. The first of these boards is the Council of the State, established in its present form by Alexander I., in the year 1810. It consists of a president-the Grand Duke Mikhail since 1882 and an unlimited number of members appointed by the Emperor. In 1894 the Council consisted of 62 members, exclusive of the ministers, who have a seat ex officio, and six princes of the imperial house. The Council is divided into three departments, namely, of Legislation, of Civil and Church Administration, and of 1. The Ministry of the Imperial House and Finance. Each department has its own presi- | Imperial Domains. dent, and a separate sphere of duties; but

The fourth board of government is the Committee of Ministers. It consists of all the ministers, who are :--

2. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Assist

3. The Ministry of War.

4. The Ministry of the Navy.
5. The Ministry of the Interior.

6. The Ministry of Public Instruction.
7. The Ministry of Finance.
8. The Ministry of Justice.

there are collective meetings of the three sec-ant Minister.
tions. The chief function of the Council of
the Empire is that of examining into the proj-
ects of laws which are brought before it by
the ministers, and of discussing the budget and
all the expenditures to be made during the
But the Council has no power of pro-
year.
posing alterations and modifications of the
laws of the realm; it is, properly speaking, a
consultative institution in matters of legisla-
tion. A special department is intrusted with
the discussion of the requests addressed to the

9. The Ministry of Agriculture and State Domains.

10. The Ministry of Public Works and Rail ways.

11. The Department of General Control.

12. The Procurator-General of the Holy Synod.

Besides the Ministers, four Grand Dukes, and six functionaries, chiefly ex-ministers, form part of the Committee, of which Actual Privy Councilor Durnovo is President.

Minister and State Secretary for Finland. Most of the above heads of departments have assistant ministers who supply their place on certain occasions. They all communicate directly with the sovereign.

part of the local administration, is entrusted to the people. For this purpose the whole country is divided into communes (107,676 in European Russia, exclusive of the three Baltic provinces), which elect an elder (Starosta), or executive of a commune, as also a tax-collector or superintendent of public stores. All these officers are elected at communal assemblies ("Mir"-which means both "the village" and "the world ") by the peasants, and from among themselves. The communal assemblies are constituted by all the householders in the village, who discuss and decide all communal affairs. These communal assemblies are held as business requires. The communes are united into cantons, or "Voloste," each embracing a population of about 2,000 males (10,530 in European Russia). Each of the cantons is presided over also by an elder "Starshina," elected at the cantonal assemblies, which are composed of the delegates of the village communities in proportion of one man to every ten houses. The canton assemblies decide the same class of affairs as do the communal assemblies, but concerning each its respective canton. The peasants have thus special institutions of their own, which are submitted also to government. In Poland the "Voloste" is replaced by special colleges "for peasants' affairs," instituted in each the Gmina," the assemblies of which are constituted of all landholders-nobility included, the clergy and the police excluded - who have each but one voice, whatever the area of land possessed. The "Gmina" has, however, less autonomy than the "Voloste," being subject directly to the "Chief of the District." In conjunction with the assemblies of the Voloste and Gmina are cantonal tribunals, consisting of from four to twelve

The Emperor has two Private Cabinets, one of which is occupied with charitable affairs, and the other is devoted to public instruction of girls and to the administration of the institutions established by the late Empress Maria, mother of the Emperor Nicholas I. Besides, there is the Imperial Head-Quarters (Glavnaya Kvartira), and a Cabinet, which is entrusted also with the reception of petitions presented to the Emperor, formerly received by a special Court of Requests (abolished in 1884). Ac-judges elected at cantonal assemblies. Injuries and ofcording to a law of May 19, 1888, a special Imperial Cabinet having four sections (Administrative, Economical, Agricultural and Manufacturing, and Legislative) has been created, instead of the same departments in the Ministry of Imperial Household. According to the law of May 22, 1894, a special chief for the protection of the Imperial residences and trains has been appointed under the title of " General in Service at the Emperor' (Dezhurnyi General), General Aide-de-Camp Tcherevin holding this position.

Local Government.-The Empire is divided into general governments, or vice-royalties, governments, and districts. There are at present in European Russia (including Poland and Finland) 68 governments, with 635 districts (uyezd), 2 otdyels, and 1 okrug, also considered as separate governments. Some of them are united into general governments, which are now those of Finland, Poland, Wilna, Kieff, and Moscow. The Asiatic part of the Empire comprises 5 general governments: Caucasus, Turkestan, Stephoye (of the Steppes), Irkutsh, and of the Amur, with 10 governments (guberniya), 17 territories (oblasts), and 3 districts (okrug, or otdyel: Zakataly, Chernomorsk, and Sakhalin). At the head of each general government is a governor-general, the representative of the Emperor, who as such has the supreme control and direction of all affairs, whether civil or military. In Siberia the governors-general are each assisted by a council, which has a deliberative voice. A civil governor assisted by a council of regency, to which all measures must be submitted, is established in each government, and a military governor in twenty frontier provinces. A vice-governor is appointed to fill the place of the civil governor when the latter is absent or unwell. There is also, in each government, a council of control under the presidency of a special officer, depending directly on the Department of Control. Each government is divided into from 8 to 15 districts, having each several administrative institutions. A few districts (okrug or oldyel) in Siberia, in the Caucasus, in Turkestan, and in the Transcaspian region are considered as independent governments. So also the townships (gradonachalstro of St. Petersburg, Odessa, Kertch, Sebastopol, and Taganrog; Cronstadt, Vladivostok, and Nikolaevsk are under separate military governors. In 1894, the Government of Warsaw has been increased by one district of Plock and one district of Lomja.

In European Russia the government of the parish, in so far as the lands of the peasantry are concerned, and

fenses of every kind, as well as disputes relating to property between the peasants, not involving more than a hundred roubles, come under the jurisdiction of these popular tribunals. Affairs of more importance, up to 300 roubles, are judged by Judges of Peace, elected in Central Russia, and nominated elsewhere; appeal against their judgments can be made to the "Syezd," or gathering of judges of the district, and further to the Senate. In 1889 an important change was made in the above organization. Justices of Peace have been replaced in twenty provinces of Central Russia by Chiefs of the district (uyezdnyi nachalnik), nominated by the administration from among candidates taken from the nobility, recommended by the nobility, and endowed with wide disciplinary powers against the peasants; in the cities, except St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Odessa, special "town magistrates" (gorodskoi sudia), nominated in the same way, are to take the place of the former Justices of Peace. As to the peasants' tribunals (volostnoi sud), they are placed in direct subjection to the "Chiefs of the Districts." The same measure has been extended in 1890 and 1891 over all the provinces endowed with provincial institutions (zemstvos).

Religion.-The established religion of the Empire in the Græco-Russian, officially called the Orthodox-Catholic Faith. It has its own independent synod, but maintains the relations of a sister Church with the four patriarchates of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The Holy Synod, the board of government of the Church, was established with the concurrence of the Russian clergy and the four Eastern patriarchs. The Emperor is head of the Church; he appoints to every office in the Church, and is restricted only so far as to leave to the bishops and prelates the privilege of proposing candidates; and he transfers and dismisses persons from their offices in certain cases. But he has never claimed the right of deciding theological and dogmatic questions. Practically, the Procurator of the Holy Synod enjoys wide powers in Church matters. The points in which the Græco-Russian Church differs from the Roman Catholic faith are, its denying the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, its not enforcing the celibacy of the clergy, and its authorizing all individuals to read and study the Scriptures in the vernacular tongue. With the exception of the restraints laid on the Jews, all religions may be freely professed in the Empire. The dissenters have been and are still, however, severely persecuted, though recently some liberty has been extended to those of the United Church." It is estimated that there are more than 12,000,000 dissenters in Great Russia alone. The affairs of the Roman Catholic Church are entrusted to a Collegium, and those of the Lutheran Church to a Consistory, both settled at St. Petersburg. Roman Catholics are most numerous in the former Polish provinces, Lutherans in those of the Baltic, and Mohammedans in Eastern and Southern Russia, while the Jews are almost entirely settled in the towns

and larger villages of the western and southwestern provinces. Instruction.-Most of the schools in the Empire are under the Ministry of Public Instruction, and the Empire is divided into 14 educational districts (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kazan, Orenburg, Kharkoff, Odessa, Kief, Vilna, Warsaw, Dorpat, Caucasus, Turkestan, West Siberia, and East Siberia). However, many special schools are under separate Ministries. The total contribution for education from the various Ministries in 1894 was 39,336,096 roubles; of this, 7,294,473 roubles was for universities, 19,576,208 roubles for middle-class schools, and 7,403,612 roubles for primary schools. Justice. The organization of justice was totally reformed by the law of 1864; but the action of that law has not yet been extended to the governments of Olonets, Vologda, Astrakhan, Ufa, and Orenburg, and has been applied but in a modified form (in 1889) to the Baltic Provinces and the government of Arkhangelsk. In the above-named governments the Justice of Peace has been introduced, but the other tribunals remain in the old state. No juries are allowed in Poland and the Caucasus; the justices of peace are nominated by the Government in the provinces which have no zemstvos. In Poland there are judges of peace in the towns only, their functions in the villages being performed by Gmina courts, elected by the inhabitants of the Gmina. Siberia has maintained the tribunals of old; in the Steppe Provinces there are district judges, while courts of higher instance are represented by the Justice Department of the provincial administration.

There were in 1891, 2 appeal departments of the Senate, 10 high courts, 85 courts of first instance. There were besides -1,280 inquiry judges, and 1,345 notaries; 2,126 actual, and 3,652 honorary justices of peace. In the unreformed tribunals there were 604 judges, 129 public prosecutors, and 156 inquiry judges.

By a law, dated June 21, 1889, the functions of the juries were limited to some extent, especially as regards the crimes committed by the representatives of nobility

in their elective functions.

By a law of April 6, 1891, reformed courts as well as chiefs of districts have been introduced in the provinces of the Kirghize Steppes. In Siberia, the reformed Courts and trial by jury were introduced in 1897, and in

Turkestan in 1898.

SPAIN.

The present Constitution of Spain, drawn up by the Government and laid before a Cortes Constituventes, elected for its ratification, March 27, 1876, was proclaimed June 30, 1876. It consists of 89 articles or clauses. The first of them enacts that Spain shall be a constitutional monarchy, the executive resting in the King, and the power to make laws in the Cortes with the King." The Cortes are composed of a Senate and Congress, equal in authority. There are three classes of senators -first, senators by their own right, or Senadores de derecho propio; secondly, 100 life senators nominated by the Crown-these two categories not to exceed 180; and thirdly, 180 senators, elected by the Corporations of State. that is, the communal and provincial states, the church, the universities, academies, etc.and by the largest payers of contributions. Senators in their own right are the sons, if any, of the King and of the immediate heir to the throne, who have attained their majority; Grandees who are so in their own right and who can prove an annual renta of 60,000 pesetas, or 2,4001.; captain-generals of the army; admirals of the navy; the patriarch of the Indias and the archbishops; the presi

-

dents of the Council of State, of the Supreme Tribunal, of the Tribunal of Cuentas del Reino, and of the Supreme Council of War and of the The elective Navy, after two years of office. senators must be renewed by one half every five years, and by totality every time the Monarch dissolves that part of the Cortes. The Congress is formed by deputies "named in the electoral Juntas in the form the law determines," in the proportion of one to every 50,000 souls of the population. According to the law of June 26, 1890, the electoral qualification is held by all male Spaniards, 25 years of age, who enjoy full civil rights, and have been citizens of a municipality for at least two years. Members of Congress must be 25 years of age; they are re-eligible indefinitely, the elections being for 5 years. Deputies, to the number of 10, are admitted who, although not elected for any one district, have obtained a cumulative vote of more than 10,000 in several districts. Deputies to the number of 88 are elected by scrutin de liste in 26 large districts, in which minorities may be duly represented. There are in all 431 deputies. The deputies cannot take State office, pensions, and salaries; but the ministers are exempted from this law. Both Congress and Senate meet every year. The Monarch has the power of convoking them, suspending them, or dissolving them; but in the latter case a new Cortes must sit within three months. The Monarch appoints the president and vice-presidents of the Senate from members of the Senate only; the Congress elects its own officials. The Monarch and each of the legislative chambers can take the initiative in the laws. The Congress has the right of impeaching the ministers before the Senate.

The Constitution of June 30, 1876, further enacts that the Monarch is inviolable, but his ministers are responsible, and that all his decrees must be countersigned by one of them. The Cortes must approve his marriage before he can contract it, and the King cannot marry anyone excluded by law from the succession to the crown. Should the lines of the legitimate descendants of the late Alphonso XII. become extinct, the succession shall be in this order first, to his sisters; next to his aunt and her legitimate descendants; and next to those of his uncles, the brothers of Fernando VII., "unless they have been excluded." all the lines become extinct, "the nation will elect, its Monarch."

If

The executive is vested, under the Monarch, in a Council of Ministers, as follows, March 4, 1899:

President of the Council.
Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Minister of Justice.

Minister of Finance.

Minister of the Interior

Minister of War.

Minister of Marine.

By a law of 1857 an elaborate system of primary education was ordained: education was to be compulsory, there was to be a primary school for every 500 inhabitants, and instruction was to be on a rigidly uniform plan. Compulsion has never been enforced, and, partly from political causes and partly from the wretched pay of most of the elementary teachers (10l. to 20l. per annum), education is very inefficient. In 1881, how

Minister of Agriculture and Commerce and of ever, several improvements were introduced. Under Public Works.

The Ministry of the Colonies was abolished February 10, 1899.

the Minister of Public Works there is a Director-General of Public Instruction, with a council; there are ten educational districts, with the universities as centers, 49 inspectoral districts, and numerous local educational authorities. The public and primary schools are supported mainly by the municipalities, the total sum spent in each of the last three years on primary education, including a small contribution by Government, being about 1,000,000. Most of the children are educated free. TURKEY.

Local Government.-The various provinces and communes of Spain are governed by the provincial and municipal laws. Every commune has its own elected Ayuntamiento, consisting of from five to thirty-nine Regidores, or Concejales, and presided over by the Alcalde, at whose side stand, in the larger towns, several Tenientes Alcaldes. The entire municipal government, with power of taxation, is vested in the Ayuntamientos. Half the members are elected every two years, and they appoint the Alcalde, the executive functionary, from their own body. In the larger towns he may be appointed by the King. Members cannot be re-elected until after two years. Each province of Spain has its own Parliament, the Diputacion Provincial, the members of which are elected by the constituencies. The Diputaciones Provinciales meet in annual session, and are permanently represented by the Commission Provincial, a committee elected every year. The Constitution of 1876 secures to the Diputaciones Provinciales and the Ayuntamientos the government and administration of the respective provinces and communes. Neither the national executive nor the Cortes have the right to inter-permanent State fere in the established municipal and provincial administration, except in the case of the action of the Diputaciones Provinciales and Ayuntamientos going beyond the locally limited sphere to the injury of general and permanent interests. In the Basque provinces selfgovernment has been almost abolished since the last civil war, and they are ruled as the rest of Spain. Notwithstanding the provisions of the Constitution, pressure is too frequently brought to bear upon the local elections by the Central Government.

Religion. The national Church of Spain is the Roman Catholic, and the whole population of the Kingdom adhere to that faith, except (in 1887) 6,654 Protestants, 402 Jews, 9,645 Rationalists, 510 of other religions, and 13,175 of religion not stated. There were in 1884 in Spain 32,435 priests in the 62 dioceses into which the country is divided; 1,684 monks resident in 161 monastic houses, and 14,592 nuns in 1,027 convents. The number of cathedrals was 65, of religious colleges 30, of churches 18,564, and of convents, religious houses, sanetuaries, and other buildings of a religious character 11,202. According to Article 12 of the Constitution of 1876, a restricted liberty of worship is allowed to Protestants, but it has to be entirely in private, all public announce ments of the same being strictly forbidden. The Constitution likewise enacts that "the nation binds itself to maintain the worship and ministers of the Roman Cath olic religion." Resolutions of former legislative bodies not repealed in the Constitution of 1876, settled that the clergy of the Established Church are to be maintained by the State. On the other hand, by two decrees of the Cortes, passed July 23, 1835, and March 9, 1836, all conventual establishments were suppressed, and their property confiscated for the benefit of the nation. These decrees gave rise to a long dispute with the head of the Roman Catholic Church, which ended in the sovereign pontiff conceding the principle of the measure. By a concordat with Rome concluded in August, 1859, the Spanish government was authorized to sell the whole ecclesiastical property, except churches and parsonages, in return for an equal amount of untransferable public debt certificates bearing interest at the rate of 3 per

cent.

Instruction.-The latest census returns show that a

large proportion of the inhabitants are illiterate. In 1860 20.0 per cent. of the population could read and write; 4.6 per cent. could read only; and 75.3 per cent. could neither read nor write. In 1889, out of a population of 17,552,346 accounted for, 5,004,460 (3,317,855 males, and 1,686,615 females), or 28.5 per cent. could read and write; 608,005 (221,613 males, and 380,392 females), or 3.4 per cent. could read only; and 11,945,871 (5,067,098 males,

and 6,878,773 females), or 68.1 per cent. could neither

read nor write.

The present sovereign of Turkey is the thirtyfourth, in male descent, of the house of Othman, the founder of the empire, and the twenty-eighth Sultan since the conquest of Constantinople. By the law of succession obeyed in the reigning family, the crown is inherited according to seniority by the male descendants of Othman, sprung from the Imperial Harem. The Harem is considered a institution. All children born in the Harem, whether offspring of free women or of slaves, are legitimate and of equal lineage. The Sultan is succeeded by his eldest son, but only in case there are no uncles or cousins of greater age.

66

The fundamental laws of the empire are based on the precepts of the Koran. The will of the Sultan is absolute, in so far as it is not in opposition to the accepted truths of the Mahometan religion as laid down in the sacred book of the Prophet. Next to the Koran, the laws of the Multeka," a code formed of the supposed sayings and opinions of Mahomet, and the sentences and decisions of his immediate successors, are binding upon the SovAnother code ereign as well as his subjects. of laws, the "Cahon nameh, formed by Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, from a collection of hatti-sheriffs," or decrees, issued by him and his predecessors, is held in general obedience, but merely as an emanation of human authority.

The legislative and executive authority is exercised, under the supreme direction of the Sultan, by two high dignitaries, the "Sadrazam," or Grand Vizier, the head of the temporal Government, and the "Sheïk-ul-Islam," the head of the Church. Both are appointed by the Sovereign, the latter with the nominal concurrence of the "Ulema," a body comprising the clergy and chief functionaries of the law, over which the Shefk-ul-Islam" presides, although he himself does not exercise priestly functions. Connected with the Ulema" are the 66 The Ulema comprise all the great judges, 'Mufti,” the interpreters of the Koran.

theologians, and jurists, and the great teachers of literature and science, who may be summoned by the Mufti. The principal civic functionaries bear the titles of Effendi, Bey, or Pasha.

that the trial be according to the law; the carrying out of the sentence, if against the foreigner, to be through his consulate. Cases between two foreign subjects of different nationalities are tried in the court of the defendant.

Forms of constitution, after the model of the West European States, were drawn up at various periods by successive Ottoman Governments, the first of them embodied in the "Hati-Huméyoun" of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, proclaimed February 18, 1856, and the most recent in a decree of Sultan Abdul-Hamid II., of November, 1876. But the carrying out of these projects of reform appears entirely impossible in the present condition of the Otto-anon; 6, Protestants, consisting of converts chiefly man Empire.

Religion and Education.-Mahometans form the vast majority of the population in Asiatic Turkey, but only one half of the population in European Turkey. Recognized by the Turkish Government are the adherents of seven non-Mahometan creeds-namely: 1, Latins, Franks, or Catholics, who use the Roman Lit urgy, consisting of the descendants of the Genoese and Venetian settlers in the empire, and proselytes among Armenians Bulgarians, and others; 2, Greeks; 3, Armenians; 4, Syrians and United Chaldeans; 5, Maronites, under a Patriarch at Kanobin in Mount Lebamong the Armenians; 7, Jews. These seven religious denominations are invested with the privilege of possessing their own ecclesiastical rule. The Bishops and Patriarchs of the Greeks and Armenians, and the Chacham-Baschi," or high-rabbi of the Jews, possess, in consequence of those functions, considerable influence. The Mahometan clergy are subordinate to the Sheikul-Islam. Their offices are hereditary, and they can ever, in the strict sense of a separate class, to whom only be removed by Imperial iradé. A priesthood, howalone the right of officiating in religious services belongs, cannot be said to exist in Turkey.

The Grand Vizier, as head of the Government and representative of the Sovereign, is assisted by the Medjliss-i-Hass, or Privy Council, which corresponds to the British Cabinet. The Medjliss-i-Hass consists of the following members: 1, The Grand Vizier; 2, The Sheïk-ul-Islam; 3, The Minister of the Interior; 4, The Minister of War; 5, The Minister of Evkaf (Worship); 6, The Minister of Public Instruction; 7, The Minister of Public Works; 8, President of Council of State; 9, Minister of Foreign Affairs; 10, Minister of The number of mosques in the Turkish Empire is Finance; 11, Minister of Marine; 12, Minis-2,120, of which 379 are in Constantinople. The number of the clergy is 11,600. Connected with the mosques are 1,780 elementary schools, where education is supplied

ter of Justice; 13, Minister of Civil List.
The whole of the empire is divided into
thirty Vilayets, or governments, and sub-
divided into Sanjaks, or provinces, Kazas, or
districts, Nahiés, or subdistricts, and Kariés,
or communities. A Vali, or governor general,
who is held to represent the Sultan, and is
assisted by a provincial council, is placed at
the head of each Vilayet. The provinces, dis-
tricts, etc., are subjected to inferior authori-
ties (Mutesarifs, Caïmakams, Mudirs and
Muktars) under the superintendence of the
principal governor. The division of the country
into Vilayets has been frequently modified of
late for political reasons. For similar reasons
six of the Sanjaks of the empire are governed
by Mutesarifs appointed directly by the Sultan,
and are known as Mutessarifats. All subjects,
however humble their origin, are eligible to,
and may fill, the highest offices in the State.

Under the capitulations foreigners residing in Turkey are under the laws of their respective countries, and are amenable for trial (in cases in which Turkish subjects are not concerned) to a tribunal presided over by their consul. Foreigners who own real property are amenable to the Ottoman civil courts in questions relative to their landed property. Cases between foreign and Turkish subjects are tried in the Ottoman courts, a dragoman of the foreign consulate being present to see

The Koran and Multeka encourage public education, and, as a consequence, public schools have been long established in most considerable Turkish towns; while "medresses," or colleges, with public libraries, are attached to the greater number of the principal mosques. rather limited. But the instruction afforded by these establishments is

and which is known under the name of Vacouf. Three

gratis. The private revenue of the Evkaf (church), previous to the war of 1878, was 30,200,000 piastres (250.0007.) per annum, but they have now been reduced to 20,000,000 000 piastres (125,0007.). The stipend of the Shefk-ul-Islam, piastres (166,0007.). The expenses are reckoned at 15,000,7,031,520 piastres (59,0007.), and those of the Naïbs and Mufprincipal revenues of the Evkaf are derived from the tis, 7,876,646 piastres (66,000l.), are paid by the State. The sale of landed property which has been bequeathed it, fourths of the urban property of the empire is supposed to belong to the Vacouf. Purchasers of property of this description pay a nominal annual rent to the Evkaf; but should they die without direct heirs the property reverts to the Church.

CIVIL LISTS OF EUROPEAN SOV-
EREIGNS.

Bavaria, King of, $1,412,000.
Austria-Hungary, Emperor of, $3,875,000.
Belgium, King of, $660.000.
Denmark, King of, $227,775; and Crown Prince, $33,330.

Greece, King of, 8260,000, including $20,000 a year each

from Great Britain, France, and Russia. Netherlands, King of, $250,000, also a large revenue Italy, King of, $2,858,000, of which $180,000 for family. from domains, and $62,500 for royal family, courts, Norway and Sweden, King of, $575,525. and palaces. Portugal, King of, $634,440. Prussia, King of, $3,852,770; also a vast amount of pri

vate property, castles, forests, and estates, out of
which the court expenditure and royal family are
Roumania, King of, $237,000.
paid.

Russia, Czar of, has private estates of more than 1,000,000
square miles of cultivated land and forests, besides
gold and other mines in Siberia. The annual income
has been estimated at about $12,000,000.
Saxony, King of, $735,000.

Servia, King of, $240,000.

Spain, King of, $1,400,000, besides $600,000 for family.
Würtemberg, King of, $449,050.

-Barker's Facts.

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