12. The months of the year, and the days of the week. The names of the seasons, however, should not generally be capitalized, although it is customary with some authors. 13. The words North, South, East, and West, and their compounds, as Northwest, when they signify a section of country. Also adjectives derived therefrom. This class of words should not be capitalized, however, when merely denoting direction. A SEMICOLON is placed before as, to wit, viz., namely, and that is when they introduce examples or illustrations. Example. Every solid has three dimensions; namely, length, breadth, and thickness. Place a semicolon at the close of a sentence which by its terms promises another sentence. Example.-"Tic-tac, tic-tac, go the wheels of . themselves; sleep cannot still them; madness only thought; our will cannot stop them; they cannot stop makes them go faster; death alone can break into the case." Example. He was a poor boy; he had no showy Punctuation Points. The Punctua- accomplishments; he had no influential friends; but tion Points are as follows:he was rich in youth, courage, and honesty of purpose. COMMA.- Set off by the comma an explanatory modifier when it does not restrict the modified term. Period Colon Semicolon Comma Paragraph Brace Acute Accent Grave Accent Circumflex Accent Tilde, or Circumflex The Long, or Macron [], The Short, or Breve Diæresis Cedilla Asterisk Dagger, or Obelisk A! Section Parallel Punctuation is the art of dividing composition by points or stops for the purpose of showing more clearly the sense and relation of the words, and of noting the different pauses and inflections required in reading. The usage of to-day is not that of the past and will not be that of the future. The following rules are the most important and are compiled from the best modern authorities: THE PERIOD must be placed after every declarative and imperative sentence and every abbreviated word. Examples.-Obey your parents. Virtue is the only nobility. We write Jas. for James, N. Y. for New York, No. for number, George I. for George the First. After all abbreviations. Example.- Mdse.- Amt.- Ph. D.-LL. D. A nickname which is not really an abbreviation is not followed by a period. Examples.- Dave Bidwell; Sam Slick. A COLON is placed after a sentence which formally introduces a distinct quotation. Example. We are often reminded of this remark of Marshal Lannes : "Know, Colonel, that none but a poltroon would boast that he was never afraid." The colon may be used to separate the great parts of a long complex sentence when the minor sentences therein are separated by the semicolon. The colon is passing out of use, its place being taken by the dash, the semicolon, and the period. Example. The order, to fire, was given. Set off by the comma a word or phrase that is independent. Example.-To tell the truth, he was not at home. Set off by the comma a phrase that is out of its natural order. Example.-Shifting his burden, he hurried on. Set off by the comma a particle used as an adjective. Example. The water, expanding, burst the pipe. Set off by the comma connected words and phrases unless the conjunctions are all expressed. Example.-"From the mountain, from the river, from the hill, and from the plain, we are sweeping to the rescue." A comma is used before a direct quotation unless it is formally introduced. Greeley said, The way to resume is to resume." Set off by commas all parenthetical expressions and the following words when used as such; however, that is, indeed, of course, finally, again, first, second, also, therefore, yes, no, too, etc. Example.- Use the comma after as, viz., to-wit, namely, and that is, when they introduce examples. Example.-We will promote the man; that is, if he is worthy. The parts of a complex sentence should be separated by a comma when the auxiliary precedes the principal sentence. Example. If the messenger calls, give him the letter. Separate by the comma a phrase or sentence used as a subject and its verb. Example.-"That all men are created equal, is a selfevident truth." Words used in direct address should be separated by the comma. Example.-"Stranger, I am Roderick Dhu." THE INTERROGATION POINT must be placed after every interrogative sentence, member, and clause; also after the interjections eh and hey implying a question. Example. Your friend (?) told me this. THE EXCLAMATION POINT should be placed after every exclamatory sentence, member, clause, and expression. Examples.- How disgusting is vice! Life is short; how careful we should be to use it aright! For shame! An exclamation point placed in parentheses denotes peculiar surprise. A DASH is usually placed before the answer to a question when both are in the same paragraph. Example.- Are you acquainted with the defendant?I am. A dash is often used in place of the parentheses. Example. With a firm step-for he was brave - he advanced. Use the dash where there is an omission of such words as, namely, that is, as, introducing equivalent expressions and when letters or figures are omitted. Example.-"Some wit has divided the world into two classes the wise and the otherwise." General M was present. the final vowel of a prefix does not form a diphthong with the first vowel of a primitive; but in this latter case a mark of diæresis is more appropriate. Example. Pre-engagement, re-establish [preëngage ment, reestablish.] QUOTATION POINTS are used to inclose words quoted from an author or speaker, or represented in narrative as employed in dialogue. of thy youth." Example.-" Remember now thy Creator in the days When the substance merely is given, and not the exact words, quotation points are un necessary. Matter within quotation points is to be punctuated just as if it stood in any other position. When quotation points are needed at the end of a sentence, they come after whatever other point is required there if this point applies to the quotation alone, but before this point if it applies to the whole sentence and not exclusively to the quotation. Example.-Pilate asked, "What is truth?" Where now is the "man of destiny"? When a quotation incloses within it another Use the dash when there is a sudden transi- quotation, the external quotation has the tion. Example.-We have learned the bitter lesson -- let us bury the past. double marks, and the one included has only the single marks. Example.- It has been well said, "The command. 'Thou shalt not kill,' forbids many crimes besides that of murder." PARENTHESES. Marks of Parenthesis are used to inclose words which explain, modify, If the inclosed or secondary quotation ends or add to the main proposition, when so ina sentence, three apostrophes will there come troduced as to break the connection between dependent parts and interfere with the har-together, of which the first will belong to the monious flow. Example.- The Saxons (for they descended from the ancient Saca) retained for centuries the energy and morality of their ancestors. BRACKETS. Brackets are used principally in quoted passages, to inclose words improperly omitted or added by way of correction, observation, or explanation. Example. She is weary with [of] life. In regard to the use of points before and after the brackets, and the punctuation of any sentence or clause within the brackets, the same rules apply that have been given in regard to the marks of parenthesis. THE APOSTROPHE denotes the omission of a letter or letters, and the possessive case of nouns. Examples.-'Tis for it is; e'en for even; don't for do not; o'clock for on [the] clock. So in the possessive: hero's, Charles', men's, heroes', children's. Pronouns never take the apostrophe in the possessive case. THE HYPHEN is used to connect the elements of a compound word, when each retains its own accent. Example.-Castle-builder, father-in-law. The hyphen is also used after a complete syllable at the end of a line, to connect the parts of a divided word; also to denote that inclosed quotation, and the other two to the original. When an inclosed quotation itself contains words or phrases that are quoted, those, words or phrases have the double marks. Example.-"French says, 'What a lesson the word "diligence" contains!" When the sentence becomes more involved than this, the additional marks of quotation would create confusion, and may therefore be omitted. THE PARAGRAPH is used to indicate a new subject of remark. The sign is retained in the Holy Scripture but in ordinary composition is indicated to the eye by beginning a little to the right of the marginal line of the page. ACCENT MARKS are used to denote the proper pronunciation of words. They are: The Acute [], which marks the syllable which requires the principal stress in pronunciation; or to denote a rising inflection of the voice, or a close or short vowel. The Grave [] is used in opposition to the acute to distinguish an open or long vowel, or to denote the falling inflection of the voice. The Circumflex [^] generally denotes a broad sound or a combination of the acute and grave. The Breve [] is used to denote either a close vowel or a syllable of short quantity. pro The Macron [-] is used to denote either an open vowel or a syllable of long quantity. The Diaresis [] is placed over the latter of two vowels to show that they are to be nounced in separate syllables, as aerial. In German this character is called the Umlaut, and denotes a modification of the sound of a vowel over which it is placed, peculiar to the Germanic languages. The Cedilla [,] is placed under the letter c to give it the sound of s before a or o; as in the words façade, Alençon. The Tilde [~] is placed over the letter n in Spanish words to give it the sound of ny; as, señor, miñon. OTHER MARKS.—The Ellipsis or Suppression denotes the omission of some letters or words. Examples.-K-g, for King; G ****m, for Graham; A.... s, for Adams; H-m-hr-y, for Humphrey. of a book or chapter, and, with the help of The Section [§] marks the smaller divisions numbers, serves to abridge references. ment of a new subject. The parts of discourse The Paragraph [T] denotes the commenceficiently distinguished by beginning a new line which are called paragraphs are in general sufand carrying the first word a little backwards. Leaders [.. ] are used in contents and indexes of books and similar matter to The Caret, used only in writing, shows lead the eye to the end of the line for the completion of the sense. Example.- Wharfage, where to insert words or letters that have been accidentally omitted. Marks in Proof Reading. 2 THOUGH several differing opinions exist as to the individual by wom the art of printing was この first discovered; yet all authorities concur in admitting Peter Schoeffer to be the person' Caps. who invented cast metal types, having learned the art of of cutting the letters from the Gu*:/ tenbergs/ he is also supposed to have been the first whoengraved on copper plates. The' following testimony is preseved in the family," z/ ✓byJo.Fred.Faustus, Vof Ascheffenburg: Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiving. Caps Λ Λ Λ " his master Fausts design, and being himself "desirous ardently to improve the art, found .$50. THOUGH several differing opinions exist as to the individual by whom the art of printing was first discovered; yet all authorities concur in admitting PETER SCHOEFFER to be the person who invented cast metal types, having learned the art of cutting the letters from the Gutenbergs: he is also supposed to have been the first who engraved on copper-plates. The following testimony is preserved in the family, by Jo. Fred. Faustus, of Ascheffenburg: 'PETER SCHOEFFER, of Gernsheim, perceiving his master Faust's design, and being himself ardently desirous to improve the art, found out (by the good providence of God) the method of cutting (incidendi) the characters in a matrix, that the letters might easily be singly cast, instead of being cut. He privately cut matrices for the whole alphabet: and when he showed his master the letters cast from these matrices, Faust was so pleased with the contrivance, that he promised Peter to give him his only daughter Christina in marriage, a promise which he soon after performed. But there were as many difficulties at first with these letters, as there had been before with wooden ones, the metal being too soft to support the force of the impression: but this defect was soon remedied, by mixing the metal with a substance which sufficiently hardened it.' A wrong letter in a word is noted by drawing a short | perpendicular line through it, and making another short line in the margin, behind which the right letter is placed. (See No. 1.) In this manner whole words are corrected, by drawing a line across the wrong word and making the right one in the margin opposite. A turned letter is noted by drawing a line through it. and writing the mark No. 2 in the margin. If letters or words require to be altered from one character to another, a parallel line or lines must be made underneath the word or letter; viz., for capitals, three lines; small capitals, two lines; and italics, one line; and, in the margin opposite the line where the alteration occurs, caps, small caps, or ital. must be written. (See No. 3.) When letters or words are set double, or are required to be taken out, a line is drawn through the superfluous word or letter, and the mark No. 4 placed opposite in the margin. Where the punctuation requires to be altered, the correct point, marked in the margin, should be encircled. When a space is omitted between two words or letters which should be separated, a caret must be made where the separation ought to be and the sign No. 6 placed opposite in the margin. "No. 7 describes the manner in which the hyphen and ellipsis line are marked. When a letter has been omitted, a caret is put at the place of omission, and the letter marked as No. 8. Where letters that should be joined are separated, or where a line is too widely spaced, the mark No. 9 must be placed under them, and the correction denoted by the marks in the margin. Where a new paragraph is required, a quadrangle is drawn in the margin, and a caret placed at the beginning of the sentence. (See No. 10.) No. 11 shows the way in which the apostrophe, inverted commas, the star, and other references, and superior letters and figures, are marked. Where two words are transposed, a line is drawn over one word and below the other, and the mark No. 12 placed in the margin; but where several words require to be transposed, their right order is signified by a figure placed over each word, and the mark No. 12 in the margin. Where words have been struck out, that have afterward been approved of, dots should be marked under them, and stet written in the margin. Where a space sticks up between two words, a horizontal line is drawn under it, and the mark No. 14 placed opposite, in the margin. Where several words have been left out, they are transcribed at the bottom of the page, and a line drawn from the place of omission to the written words (see No. 15); but if the omitted matter is too extensive to be copied at the foot of the page, Out, see copy, is written in the margin, and the missing lines are inclosed between brackets, and the word Out is inserted in the margin of the copy. Where letters stand crooked, they are noted by a line (see No. 16); but where a page hangs, lines are drawn across the entire part affected. When a smaller or larger letter, of a different font, is improperly introduced into the page, it is noted by the mark No. 17, which signifies wrong font. If a paragraph is improperly made, a line is drawn from the broken-off matter to the next paragraph, and No written in the margin. (See No. 18.) Where a word has been left out or is to be added, a caret must be made in the place where it should come in, and the word written in the margin. (See No. 19.) Where a faulty letter appears, it is denoted by making a cross under it, and placing a similar mark in the mar gin (see No. 20); though some prefer to draw a perpendicular line through it, in the case of a wrong letter. Where a word has been accidentally separated by a space, it is marked as in No. 21. or Calls attention to some doubtful word or ду "Star Spangled Banner" was written by Francis Scott' Key (1790-1843). "La Marseillaise" is the work of Rouget de L'Isle (1760-1836). "Home, Sweet Home" is by John Howard Payne (1792-1852). "From Greenland's Icy Mountains" is the composition of Reginald Heber (1783-1826). "Battle Hymn of the Republic" was written by Julia Ward Howe (1819). "Ben Bolt" is from the pen of Thomas Dunn English (1819). "Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep" is by Emma C. Willard (1847-1870). "Hail, Columbia" is the production of Joseph Hopkinson (1770-1842). FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS. Abderit. Democritus, the original laughing philosopher, was born in Abdera, a Thracian city. From him a scoffer or person given to continual laughing is called an Abderite. Abraham's Bosom. The rest of the blessed dead. Abyla and Calpe, the Pillars of Hercules, the exit from the Mediterranean. Academics. Plato's disciples were so called from the Academy. Academy. (Academe.) Plato founded his school in a gymnasium of this name near Athens, 368 B. C. Academy, The French. A French scientific body limited to forty members. Acadia. Formerly the name of Nova Scotia. Adam's Apple. A part of the throat where, it is said, a piece of the forbidden fruit lodged. Admirable Crichton, The. James Crichton, an accomplished Scotchman of the sixteenth century. Admiral. The highest rank in the Navy.. Æneid. An epic poem by Virgil. Ages. The five ages of the world according to Hesiod, are the Golden, the Silver, the Brazen, the Heroic. and the Iron. Alabama. A Confederate privateer built in England. Sunk by the Kearsarge June 19, 1884. Aladdin's Window, To Finish. Trying to complete another's work. Aladdin's palace was perfect except one window left for the Sultan to finish, but his treasure failed him. Albany Regency. Name applied sixty years ago to some Democrats at Albany, N. Y. Albino. A person with white skin and hair and red eyes. The Portuguese so called the white negroes. Albion. England, so called from the chalky white cliffs. Aldine Press. Founded by Aldus Manutius at Venice in 1496. Editions of the classics issued from this press were called the Aldine editions. This term is now applied to some elegant editions of English works. Alexandrian Library. Was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus. It contained 700,000 volumes, and was burnt 47 B. C. Alexandrine Age. 323-640, when Alexandria was the seat of the highest culture. Alhambra. A magnificent palace and a fortress built by the Moors at Granada, in Spain. All-Hallows. All Saints' day, November 1st. Almacks. Assembly room in London where the most exclusively aristocratic balls were given. Almighty Dollar. A phrase first used by Irving in his Creole Village, and which has become quite common. The title of a play. Alsatia. A quarter in London where criminals take refuge. Alto-Relievo. Figures in marble or castings projecting one half or more from the tablet. Ambrosia. Food of the Gods. Anachronism. An error in computing time. Anacreontics. Poems composed in the manner of Anacreon, a great poet noted for his exact imitation of nature. Ancien Regime. The French Government previous to the revolution of 1798. Angling, The Father of. Izaak Walton. Annus Mirabilis. (Wonderful year.) A. D. 1666. Noted for the great fire in London, the Plague, and an English victory over the Dutch. Antoninus, The Wall of. Was built by the Romans in A. D. 140 across Scotland between the Clyde and the Frith of Forth; an embankment of earth. Apollo Belvedere. One of the most beautiful and perfect representations of the human form is the statue of Apollo in the Belvedere Gallery of the Vatican Palace at Rome. Appian Way. The road from Rome to Capua. The oldest Roman road. Apples of Sodom. Beautiful fruit, but full of ashes. Applied figuratively to the disappointment of sin. Apple, Golden. Prize for beauty disputed before París, between Juno, Pallas, and Venus; awarded by him to Venus. Arabesque. Decoration in Moorish style. Arcadian. A shepherd; a Greek grazing country named Arcadia has furnished this word to the poets. Argo. The ship in which Jason and his fifty-four companions sailed when going to Colchis for the Golden Fleece. Argonauts. The adventurers on the Argo. Argus-eyed. Crafty, watchful. Argus had a hundred eyes; the jealous Juno put him on detective duty over Io. Armada, The Spanish. A fleet of 130 ships gathered by Philip II. of Spain for the invasion of England in 1588, Queen Elizabeth was busy preparing for resistance when the news came that a storm had completely wrecked the Armada. Artesian Well. Boring in the earth until water is reached that will flow spontaneously. Their first use was in Artois, France. Aryans. The stem of the Indo-European peoples. Astor Library. Founded by John Jacob Astor in New York City. Athens, The Modern. Boston. Augustan Age. As the most flourishing period of the Roman literature was during the time of Augustus, that name is given to any age wherein literature is preeminent. Auld Reekie. Edinburgh, Scotland. Avalon. King Arthur's burial place, Glastonbury. Ayrshire Poet, The. Burns. Born 1759, died 1796. His birthplace was near Ayr in Scotland. Barnburners. A name given some years ago to radical Democrats, a leading man amongst whom was John Van Buren. Babylonish Captivity. The seventy years' captivity of the Jews at Babylon, 608-538 B. C. Baconian Philosophy. The inductive philosophy of Lord Bacon. Balmoral Castle. A Scotch castle owned by Queen Victoria, where she spends most of her time in summer. Bank of England. Founded 1694. Bard of Avon. Shakespeare, so called from his home being Stratford-on-Avon. Barmecide's Feast. A mockery, a delusion, and a sham. Barmecide asked a starving beggar to dinner, and seated him at a table of empty dishes. Basilisk. A mythical serpent with power to kill by merely looking at its victim. Basso Relievo. Figures in marble and castings that project but a little from the plane. Bastile. French prison and fortress. People were incarcerated here by lettre de cachet, without notice or trial. Destroyed by a mob, 1789. Battle of the Books. Satire by Dean Swift comparing ancient and modern literature. Battle of the Kegs. A practical joke on the British General Loring. Detailed in a ballad of the Revolutionary War. Battery, The. A park in New York City adjoining the river. Beacon Street. The aristocratic residence street of Boston. Beauty and the Beast. A fairy tale. Beauty lives with the Beast to save her father's life. By her love she disenchants the Beast, who proves to be a great Prince. Bedlam. A mad-house. Bee, The Attic. Plato; so called from his honeyed style. Bee, The Busy. An example of communal industry. Beelzebub. A Philistine deity. Begging the Question. Assuming as true what you are to prove. Belle France, La. Beautiful France. Bell the Cat. In a convention of mice it was proposed to hang a bell on the cat's neck, to give warning of her coming. No one would serve on the committee. Bell, The Passing. Rung formerly when persons were dying. At Beloved Disciple, The. St. John. Bess, Good Queen. Queen Elizabeth. Bibliotheque National. (National Library.) Paris; contains over 1,000;000 books, 150,000 MSS. Billingsgate. Coarse language. Such as is used at the fish market of Billingsgate in London; a fishwife's tongue being said to be remarkably expressive. Black Death. A plague which desolated Europe, Asia, and Africa in the fourteenth century. Black Friday. Gold panic Sept. 24, 1869. Immense fortunes lost and won same day. Investigation could never discover the true cause of it. Black Hole of Calcutta. Dark prison cell wherein Surajah Dowlah shut up 146 British soldiers; only 23 lived till morning. Black Prince, The. Edward, Prince of Wales, son of Edward III. |