Surnames are so called from the early practice of writing them over the Christian names. In modern times they were first used in France, particularly in Normandy, where they can be traced to the latter part of the tenth century. They were introduced into England by the Normans after the conquest. The ancient Hebrews, Egyptians, Syrians, Persians, and others had but a single name which was generally significant of some feature connected with their birth. Thus, Rachel, dying, had called her child Benoni, "the son of my sorrow"; but Jacob gave him the name of Benjamin, "the son of my strength." These simple names, however, soon became so common to many owners, that they failed to convey individuality; and this led to the addition of other designations, now known to us as surnames. Only about a thousand surnames were taken up by the most noble families in France and in England about the time of Edward the Confessor. The lower nobility did not follow this example before the twelfth century and the citizens and husbandmen had no family names before the fourteenth century. English names have recruits among them from almost every race. enchorial, and Coptic. The hieroglyphic was | Aristophanes of Alexandria, about two and a probably in use before 4,000 B. C., and at half centuries before the Christian era, introfirst was made up entirely of pictures; but duced some of the marks now used. But it about 2,000 B. C. the hieratic form was intro- was not until about the year 1500 A. D., that duced, in which the hieroglyphs were greatly Aldus Manutius, a learned printer of Venice, simplified, and developed into purely linear reduced the art of punctuation to a system. forms. The enchorial form of writing was in use from 700 B. C. to A. D. 200, and was a still further simplification of the earlier forms, finally developing into the alphabetic form known as the Coptic. The cuneiform writing of the Assyrian empire disputes the honors of antiquity with the Egyptian early forms. This was probably hieroglyphic in its origin, but became modified by the different nations occupying the Assyrian empire until it assumed the form of the inscriptions as known to archæologists. The name of this writing is from a Latin word meaning a wedge, and it is so called because all the characters used are made up of different arrangements of a single pointed figure resembling a wedge in form. There were three classes of cuneiform characters used in the period of development of this form of writing; first, the Assyrian or Babylonian, which was very complicated, containing from six hundred to seven hundred symbols; the Scythian or Median, having about one hundred characters only; and the third, the Persian, which is purely alphabetic. The Chinese gives an example of a written language which was arrested in an early period of its development, before the alphabetic stage had been reached. The people of China still use a written character for a word, as they did thousands of years ago. The Egyptian is the most important of those early systems, as from it was probably derived the Phoenician alphabet, which became the parent of all the graphic systems of the modern world. The Egyptians never fully separated the hieroglyphic and phonetic symbols, but the Phoenicians adopted the latter only, and thus originated the first purely alphabetic plan of writing. The Phoenician alphabet was the parent of five principal branches of graphic forms, the most important of which is the Greek, which was the parent of the Roman alphabet, from which sprung the alphabets of all modern European nations, and those taken from them by the people who now inhabit the Western hemisphere. Capital letters were first invented, and were in use for many centuries before the invention of small letters. The oldest manuscripts now in use, dating as far back as the third century, are written entirely in capitals, and without spacing between the words, or marks of punctuation. The small letters were first introduced about the seventh century. The three most numerous patronymics of Celtic origin now in use among the English are the O, the Mac, and the Ap. The Irish O originally meant grandson, the Scotch Mac and the Welch Ap meaning son. The Jews were the last to adopt surnames, and it is only within the past hundred years that they were compelled by law to adopt them in England. Sacred Books of the Hindus are of great antiquity. The oldest of their sacred books, the Vedas (knowledge or science), contain the revelation of Brahma, and were preserved by tradition until collected by Vyasa. The Vedas are three in number: first, the Rig-Veda containing hymns and mystic prayers; second, the Yajur-Veda containing the religious rites; third, the Sama-Veda, with prayers in the form of songs. The Vedas were written in Sanskrit and were first translated into English by Sir William Jones. The whole life of Ancient India is found in the Vedas, the Puranas, and the two great epics, called the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana contains about 50,000 lines describing the youth of Rama who is an inPunctuation was unknown to the ancients. carnation of their God Vishnu; his banish ment and residence in central India. The was generally recognized, it did not become an Mahabharata of later date consists of about established office until 1619, with Bn Jonson. 220,000 lines and is divided into eighteen books. Five brothers, the descendants of Bharata are the heroes of the Mahabharata; and episodes in the lives of these heroes occupy three fourths of the poem. The Puranas relate largely to mythological legends. The gods Siva and Vishnu are the sole objects of worship in the Puranas. Pilgrim's Progress, the chief work of John Bunyan, has gone through more editions and been translated into more languages, than any book, except the Bible. It is an allegory of a Christian's life from the time of his conversion to that of his death. The book was written during the author's incarceration in Bedford jail, where he passed twelve years of his life. He was born near Bedford, in England, in 1628, in 1655 became a Baptist minister and preached with great success until the restoration of Charles II., when an act against conventicles was passed, which put an end to his labors. His trial, conviction, and sentence followed. He was several times offered his liberty on the condition that he would give up preaching; but his answer was always, If you let me out to-day, I will preach again to-morrow." He died in London, 1688. 66 Hungarian Literature is in the main confined to the Magyar language, which bears a resemblance to the Turkish. It is only of late years that this literature has assumed a popular character. The native language was excluded from public and official documents for eight centuries, but, notwithstanding this fact, the Hungarians possess to-day a literature, which, both in regard to quantity and quality, will sustain comparison with that of the most civilized of western nations. The Latin language was introduced about 1000 A. D. and became the tongue of both church and state until the close of the fifteenth century. The Hungarian language was revived in the sixteenth century and became the sole vehicle for sacred poetry. Translations of the Bible were multiplied, chronicles, histories, grammars, and dictionaries were published, and the period from 1702 to 1780 probably marks the Golden Age of literature in Hungary. But the native language suffered a severe reverse when the country came under the absolute dominion of Austria. Renaissance, The, means simply a new birth or revival; but the word is always understood to mean a revival in learning. The period known as the Renaissance dates from the taking of Constantinople by the Turks (1453), but long before that epoch the love for classical literature had been reviving. This event, however, gave a decided impulse to the revival of learning in western Europe; the learned men of the Greek or eastern empire sought new homes in the Occident and established schools throughout Europe. The revi Latin language first appears in literature as a written language as well as spoken, in the plain of Latium in the third century B. C. The conquering armies of Rome soon carried a knowledge of the Latin tongue to the utmost boundaries of the known world. Hence its presence is discernible in all European languages. Those languages which are the immediate offspring of the Latin, as the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French, both Nor-val of learning, the invention of printing, the. man and Provençal, are called the Romance languages. Wallachian, the language of Roumania, in which Latin predominates, has not until lately been classified with the Latin language. Latin ceased to be a spoken language about 580 A. D. discovery of the new world, the decline of feudalism, the elevation of the middle classes, all contributed to bring about the Renaissance. It reached its climax about the beginning of the present century. Theatrical Performances have been Poet Laureate means "The Poet of the traced to the Grecian custom of celebrating Laurel Wreath." It was the custom in early every spring, in Athens, a festival in honor of Greece to crown with a laurel wreath the suc- Bacchus. Thespis originated the custom of cessful poet in a contest; this custom was introducing a single speaker to amuse the adopted by the Romans during the Empire. company with recitations. He also invented a But the title of "Poet Laureate " originated movable car on which his performances were in Germany during the twelfth century, when exhibited in various places. Theatrical perthe ancient ceremony of crowning the poet par formers are still called thespians. The car of excellence was revived. The early history of Thespis was soon exchanged for a permanent the Laureateship in England is traditional. stage in the Temple of Bacchus. Eschylus The story goes that Edward III., following the soon added a second speaker and a chorus, example of the coronation of Petrarch at Rome, masks, scenery, etc., and is therefore called conferred a similar honor upon Geoffrey Chau- the "Father of Tragedy." At the festivals cer with the yearly pension of 100 marks and of Bacchus new plays were brought out yearly other perquisites. Although the Laureateship in competition. Eschylus won the prize every year until he was fifty-six years old, when he was defeated by Sophocles. Greek comedy derived its origin from the revels of the Comus (God of revelry) during the Bacchic festivals. Its great master was Aristophanes, 444 B. C. FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. A bas.-Down with. A capite ad calcem.-From head to foot. Afortiori.-With stronger reason. A la bonne heure.-Opportunely; in good time. A la mode.-According to the fashion. A mensa et thoro.-From bed and board. A posteriori.-From effect to cause; from the latter. A vinculo matrimonii.—From the tie of marriage. Ab initio.-From the beginning. Ab origine. From the beginning. Ab ovo.-From the beginning. Ab urbe condita. From the building of the city (Rome); Abit invidia.-All offense apart; let there be no malice. Ac etiam.-And also. Alto relievo.-High relief. (Sculpture.) Ancien régime.-Former administration; ancient order Anguis in herba.-A snake in the grass. Animis opibusque parati.-Ever ready with our lives Animo et fide.-By (or with) courage and faith. Animus furandi.-Felonious intent. Anno Domini.-In the year of our Lord. Anno mundi.-In the year of the world. Apropos (Fr. à propos).-To the purpose. Arbiter elegantiarum.-Master of ceremonies; an um- Arcana imperii.-State secrets. Argumentum ad crumenam.-An argument to the Actum est de republica.-It is all over with the com- Argumentum ad fidem.—An appeal to faith. monwealth. Ad absurdum.-To show the absurdity. Ad arbitrium.-At pleasure. Ad astra per aspera.—To the stars through difficulties. Ad Græcas Calendas.-An indefinite postponement. Ad hominem.-To the man (that is, to the interests or Ad infinitum.-Without end. Ad libitum.-At pleasure. Ad litem.-For the action (at law). Ad nauseam.-To a disgusting degree. Ad referendum.-For further consideration. Ad rem.-To the purpose. Ad unguem.-To the nail; exactly; nicely. Adhuc sub judice lis est.-The affair is not yet decided. Alibi.-Elsewhere; not present. Alis volat proprtis.-She flies with her own wings. Argumentum ad hominem.-An argument to the person. Argumentum ad ignorantiam.-Aň argument founded on an adversary's ignorance of facts. Argumentum ad judichum.-An appeal to the common sense of mankind. Argumentum ad populum.—An appeal to the people. Argumentum baculinum.-Club law. Armiger.-One bearing arms; an esquire. Ars est celare artem.-True art is to conceal art. Astra castra, Numen lumen.-The stars my camp, the At spes non fracta.-But hope is not broken. Aujait.-Well instructed; master of it. Au fond. To the bottom, or main point. Audi alteram partem.-Hear the other side. Autre vie.-Another's life. Aut vincere aut mori.-Victory or death. Auto-da-fé, Auto-de-fe.-An act of faith; burning of Auxilium ab alto.-Help from on high. Badinage.-Light or playful discourse. Bas bleu.-A bluestocking; a literary woman. Beau-idéal.-A model of ideal perfection. Bel esprit.-A brilliant mind. Allegretto.-A movement quicker than andante, but not Bella-donna.-The deadly nightshade; fair lady. so quick as allegro. (Music.) Allemande.-A kind of German dance. Alma mater.-Benign mother (applied to a university). Alter ego.-A second self. Alto octavo.-An octave higher. Belles-lettres.-Polite literature. Bellum internecinum.-A war of extermination. Bene placito.-At pleasure. (Music.) Benigno numine.-By the favor of Providence, Ben trovato.-Well found; an ingenious solution. Bis dat qui citò dat.--He gives twice who gives promptly. Bis peccare in bello non licet.—To blunder twice is not allowed in war. Bis vincit, qui se vincit in victoria-He conquers a Bon gré mal gré.-Willing or unwilling. Bon mot.-A witty saying; a jest; à quibble. Bon ton.-High fashion; first-class society. Bona fide.-In good faith. Bon-bon.-A sweetmeat; confectionery. Bonis nocet quisquis pepercerít malis.-He hurts the good who spares the bad. Bonne bouche.-A delicious morsel. Bonus.-An extra payment for a service rendered or a thing received. Boreas. The north wind. Boudoir.-A small private apartment. Chevalier d'industrie.-A knight of industry; one who lives by persevering fraud. Chi tace confessa.-Silence is confession. Chiaro-oscuro or Chiaroscuro.-Light and shadow in painting. Chose qui plait est à demi vendue.-A thing which pleases is already half sold. Cicerone.-A guide or conductor. Citò maturum citò putridum.--Soon ripe, soon rotten. Cognomen. A surname. Comme il faut.-As it should be. Commune bonum.-A common good. Communia propriè dicere.-To express common things with propriety. Communibus annis.-One year with another. Con amore.-With love or hearty inclination. Bourgeois.-A citizen of the trading class; a printing Consensus facet legem.-Consent makes the law. type. Bourgeoisie.-The body of citizens. Bravura. A song of difficult execution. Breveté.-Patented. Contour.-The outline of a figure. Contra bonos mores.-Against good manners. Brutum fulmen.-A harmless thunderbolt; unreasoning Coram nobis.-Before us. bluster. Burletta.-A musical farce. Cachet. A seal. Cacoethes.-A bad habit or custom. Cacoethes carpendi.-A rage for finding fault. Cadenza.-The fall or modulation of the voice, in music. Catera desunt.-The remainder is wanting. Calibre. Capacity or compass; mental power; a term in gunnery. Camera obscura.-A dark chamber used by artists. Campus Martius.-The field of Mars; a place of military exercise. Canaille.-The rabble. Candida Pax.-White-robed Peace. Cantate Domino.-Sing to the Lord. Capias ad satisfaciendum.-You may take to satisfy. Capriccio.-A fanciful irregular kind of musical composition. Capriole.-A leap without advancing; capers. Caput mortuum.-Dead head; the worthless remains. Caret initio et fine.-It wants beginning and end. Carte blanche.-Unconditional terms. Casus belli.-An occasion for war. Casus fœderis.—A case of conspiracy; the end of the league. Catalogue raisonné.-A catalogue of books arranged according to their subjects. Cause célèbre.-A remarkable trial in a court of justice. Caveat actor.-Let the doer beware, Caveat emptor.-Let the purchaser take heed or beware. Carendo tutus.-Safe through caution. Ce n'est que le premier pas qui coûte.—It is only the first step which is difficult. Cedant arma toga.-Let military power yield to the civil. Cede Deo.-Submit to Providence. C'est une autre chose.-That is quite a different thing. Chansonnette-A little song. Chapelle ardente.-The place where a dead person lies in state. Chaperon.-An attendant on a lady, as a guide and protector. Chargé d'affaires.-An ambassador of second rank, Coram non judice.-Before one who is not the proper judge. Cornucopia.-The horn of plenty. Corpus delicti.-The whole nature of the offense. Couleur de rose.-Rose-color; an aspect of beauty and attractiveness. Coup de grâce.-The finishing stroke. Coup de main.-A bold and rapid enterprise. Coup de soleil.-A stroke of the sun. Coup d'état.-A master stroke of state policy. | Coûte qu'il coûte.-Cost what it may. Crescit amor nummi quantum ipsa pecunia crescit.The love of money íncreases as rapidly as the money itself increases. Crescit eundo.-It increases by going. Crescite et multiplicamini.-Increase and multiply. Crux criticorum.-The cross or puzzle of critics. Cui malo?-To whose harm? Cul de sac.-The bottom of the bag; a difficulty; a street or lane that has no outlet. Cum grano salis.-With a grain of salt; with some allowance. Cum multis aliis.-With many others. Curia advisari vult.- The court wishes to be advised. Déjeuner à la fourchette.-A breakfast or luncheon Emeute.-Insurrection; uproar. with meats. Dele.- Blot out or erase. Delenda est Carthago.- Carthage must be blotted out. Delta (The Greek letter A).-A triangular tract of land toward the mouth of a river. Dénouement. An unraveling or winding up. Deo adjuvante, non timendum.- God helping, nothing need be feared. Deo favente.-With God's favor. Deo gratias.-Thanks to God. Deo juvante.- With God's help. Deo non fortuna.- From God, not fortune. Deo volente or D. V.-God willing. Dépôt.-A store; the recruiting reserve of regiments. Desideratum.-Something desired or wanted. Detur digniori.-Let it be given to the more worthy. Deus ex machina.— A god from the clouds; unexpected aid in an emergency. Devastavit.- He wasted. Dexter.-The right hand. Dictum.- A positive assertion (pl. dicta). Dictum de dicto.- Report upon hearsay. Dies faustus.-A lucky day. Dies ira.-Day of wrath. Dies non.-A day on which judges do not sit. Dieu et mon droit.-God and my right. Dieu vous garde.-God protect you. Empressement.-Eagerness; ardor. En flûte.-Carrying guns on the upper deck only. En route.-On the way. Enfans perdus.-Lost children; the forlorn hope. Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem.-By his Entente cordiale.-The cordial understanding between Entre nous.-Between ourselves. Entrée.-Entrance. Entremets.-Small and dainty dishes set between the Equilibrium.-Equality of weight; even balance. Eripuit cælo fulmen, sceptrumque tyrannis. - He snatched the thunderbolt from heaven, and the scepter from tyrants. Erratum.-A mistake or error (pl. errata). Escrow.-A deed or writing left with another, to be delivered on the performance of something specified. Espièglerie.-Waggish tricks. Dii majorum gentium.-The gods of the superior class; Esprit de corps.-The animating spirit of a collective the twelve superior gods. Dii penates.-Houshold gods. Dilettanti.-Persons who devote themselves to science merely for amusement or relaxation (sing. dilettante). Diluvium.-A deposit of superficial loam, sand, etc., caused by a deluge. Dirigo.-I direct or guide. Disjecta membra.-Scattered parts, limbs, or writings. Distrait.-Absent in thought; absent-minded. Distringas.-A writ for distraining. Divide et impera.-Divide and govern. Doce ut discas.-Teach, that you may learn. Double entendre.-Double meaning (correctly written double entente). Douceur.-A present or bribe; sweetness. Dramatis persona.-The characters in a play. Dulce est desipere in loco.-It is pleasant to jest or revel at the proper time. Dulce et decorum est pro patriâ mori.—It is sweet and Dum vivimus, vivamus.-While we live, let us live. Duodecimo.-A book having twelve leaves to a sheet. Durante placito or durante beneplacito. During pleasure. Durante vita.-During life. Dux fæmina facti.-A woman was the leader to the deed. E pluribus unum.-One out of many; one composed of Ecce signum.-Behold the sign. Eclaircissement.-The clearing up of an affair. Editio princeps.-The first edition. Elan.-Buoyancy; dash. Elegit.-He hath elected; a writ of execution. Elite.-The best part. Embonpoint.-Roundness; good condition. Emeritus.-One retired from active official duties. body. Est modus in relnus.-There is a medium in all things. Ex.-Out of; late (as ex-consul). Ex cathedrâ.-From the chair; with high authority. Ex curia.-Out of court. Exfumo dare lucem.-Out of smoke to bring light. Ex parte.-On one side only (before a noun, exparte). Ex post facto.-After the deed is done. Ex tempore.-Without premeditation. Ex uno disce omnes.-From one learn all; from one judge of the whole. Excelsior.-More elevated; onward. Exempli gratia.-As for example. Experimentum crucis.—A decisive experiment. Faber sue fortune.-The architect of his own fortune. Facile primus, facile princeps.-By far the first or chiefest. Facilis est descensus.--Descent is easy. Fas est ab hoste doceri.-It is allowable to learn even from an enemy. Fata obstant.-The fates oppose it. Femme couverte.-A married woman. Festina lente.-Hasten slowly; advance steadily rather than hurriedly. Fête. A feast or celebration. Fête champêtre.-A rural feast. Feu de joie.-A bonfire; a discharge of musketry on days of rejoicing. Feuilleton.-A small leaf; a supplement to a newspaper; a pamphlet. Fiat.-Let it be done. Fiat justitia, ruat cælum.-Let justice be done, though the heavens should fall. |