Surnames are so called from the early practice of writing them over the Christian names. In modern times they were first used in France, particularly in Normandy, where they can be traced to the latter part of the tenth century. They were introduced into England by the Normans after the conquest. The ancient Hebrews, Egyptians, Syrians, Persians, and others had but a single name which was generally significant of some feature connected with their birth. Thus, Rachel, dying, had called her child Benoni, "the son of my sorrow"; but Jacob gave him the name of Benjamin, "the son of my strength." These simple names, however, soon became so common to many owners, that they failed to convey individuality; and this led to the addition of other designations, now known to us as surnames. Only about a thousand surnames were taken up by the most noble families in France and in England about the time of Edward the Confessor. The lower nobility did not follow this example before the twelfth century and the citizens and husbandmen had no family names before the fourteenth century. English names have recruits among them from almost every race.

enchorial, and Coptic. The hieroglyphic was | Aristophanes of Alexandria, about two and a probably in use before 4,000 B. C., and at half centuries before the Christian era, introfirst was made up entirely of pictures; but duced some of the marks now used. But it about 2,000 B. C. the hieratic form was intro- was not until about the year 1500 A. D., that duced, in which the hieroglyphs were greatly Aldus Manutius, a learned printer of Venice, simplified, and developed into purely linear reduced the art of punctuation to a system. forms. The enchorial form of writing was in use from 700 B. C. to A. D. 200, and was a still further simplification of the earlier forms, finally developing into the alphabetic form known as the Coptic. The cuneiform writing of the Assyrian empire disputes the honors of antiquity with the Egyptian early forms. This was probably hieroglyphic in its origin, but became modified by the different nations occupying the Assyrian empire until it assumed the form of the inscriptions as known to archæologists. The name of this writing is from a Latin word meaning a wedge, and it is so called because all the characters used are made up of different arrangements of a single pointed figure resembling a wedge in form. There were three classes of cuneiform characters used in the period of development of this form of writing; first, the Assyrian or Babylonian, which was very complicated, containing from six hundred to seven hundred symbols; the Scythian or Median, having about one hundred characters only; and the third, the Persian, which is purely alphabetic. The Chinese gives an example of a written language which was arrested in an early period of its development, before the alphabetic stage had been reached. The people of China still use a written character for a word, as they did thousands of years ago. The Egyptian is the most important of those early systems, as from it was probably derived the Phoenician alphabet, which became the parent of all the graphic systems of the modern world. The Egyptians never fully separated the hieroglyphic and phonetic symbols, but the Phoenicians adopted the latter only, and thus originated the first purely alphabetic plan of writing. The Phoenician alphabet was the parent of five principal branches of graphic forms, the most important of which is the Greek, which was the parent of the Roman alphabet, from which sprung the alphabets of all modern European nations, and those taken from them by the people who now inhabit the Western hemisphere.

Capital letters were first invented, and were in use for many centuries before the invention of small letters. The oldest manuscripts now in use, dating as far back as the third century, are written entirely in capitals, and without spacing between the words, or marks of punctuation. The small letters were first introduced about the seventh century.

The three most numerous patronymics of Celtic origin now in use among the English are the O, the Mac, and the Ap. The Irish O originally meant grandson, the Scotch Mac and the Welch Ap meaning son.

The Jews were the last to adopt surnames, and it is only within the past hundred years that they were compelled by law to adopt them in England.

Sacred Books of the Hindus are of great antiquity. The oldest of their sacred books, the Vedas (knowledge or science), contain the revelation of Brahma, and were preserved by tradition until collected by Vyasa. The Vedas are three in number: first, the Rig-Veda containing hymns and mystic prayers; second, the Yajur-Veda containing the religious rites; third, the Sama-Veda, with prayers in the form of songs. The Vedas were written in Sanskrit and were first translated into English by Sir William Jones. The whole life of Ancient India is found in the Vedas, the Puranas, and the two great epics, called the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

The Ramayana contains about 50,000 lines describing the youth of Rama who is an inPunctuation was unknown to the ancients. carnation of their God Vishnu; his banish

ment and residence in central India. The was generally recognized, it did not become an Mahabharata of later date consists of about established office until 1619, with Bn Jonson. 220,000 lines and is divided into eighteen books. Five brothers, the descendants of Bharata are the heroes of the Mahabharata; and episodes in the lives of these heroes occupy three fourths of the poem. The Puranas relate largely to mythological legends. The gods Siva and Vishnu are the sole objects of worship in the Puranas.

Pilgrim's Progress, the chief work of John Bunyan, has gone through more editions and been translated into more languages, than any book, except the Bible. It is an allegory of a Christian's life from the time of his conversion to that of his death. The book was written during the author's incarceration in Bedford jail, where he passed twelve years of his life. He was born near Bedford, in England, in 1628, in 1655 became a Baptist minister and preached with great success until the restoration of Charles II., when an act against conventicles was passed, which put an end to his labors. His trial, conviction, and sentence followed. He was several times offered his liberty on the condition that he would give up preaching; but his answer was always, If you let me out to-day, I will preach again to-morrow." He died in London, 1688.

66

Hungarian Literature is in the main confined to the Magyar language, which bears a resemblance to the Turkish. It is only of late years that this literature has assumed a popular character. The native language was excluded from public and official documents for eight centuries, but, notwithstanding this fact, the Hungarians possess to-day a literature, which, both in regard to quantity and quality, will sustain comparison with that of the most civilized of western nations. The Latin language was introduced about 1000 A. D. and became the tongue of both church and state until the close of the fifteenth century. The Hungarian language was revived in the sixteenth century and became the sole vehicle for sacred poetry. Translations of the Bible were multiplied, chronicles, histories, grammars, and dictionaries were published, and the period from 1702 to 1780 probably marks the Golden Age of literature in Hungary. But the native language suffered a severe reverse when the country came under the absolute dominion of Austria.

Renaissance, The, means simply a new birth or revival; but the word is always understood to mean a revival in learning. The period known as the Renaissance dates from the taking of Constantinople by the Turks (1453), but long before that epoch the love for classical literature had been reviving. This event, however, gave a decided impulse to the revival of learning in western Europe; the learned men of the Greek or eastern empire sought new homes in the Occident and established schools throughout Europe. The revi

Latin language first appears in literature as a written language as well as spoken, in the plain of Latium in the third century B. C. The conquering armies of Rome soon carried a knowledge of the Latin tongue to the utmost boundaries of the known world. Hence its presence is discernible in all European languages. Those languages which are the immediate offspring of the Latin, as the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French, both Nor-val of learning, the invention of printing, the. man and Provençal, are called the Romance languages. Wallachian, the language of Roumania, in which Latin predominates, has not until lately been classified with the Latin language. Latin ceased to be a spoken language about 580 A. D.

discovery of the new world, the decline of feudalism, the elevation of the middle classes, all contributed to bring about the Renaissance. It reached its climax about the beginning of the present century.

Theatrical Performances have been Poet Laureate means "The Poet of the traced to the Grecian custom of celebrating Laurel Wreath." It was the custom in early every spring, in Athens, a festival in honor of Greece to crown with a laurel wreath the suc- Bacchus. Thespis originated the custom of cessful poet in a contest; this custom was introducing a single speaker to amuse the adopted by the Romans during the Empire. company with recitations. He also invented a But the title of "Poet Laureate " originated movable car on which his performances were in Germany during the twelfth century, when exhibited in various places. Theatrical perthe ancient ceremony of crowning the poet par formers are still called thespians. The car of excellence was revived. The early history of Thespis was soon exchanged for a permanent the Laureateship in England is traditional. stage in the Temple of Bacchus. Eschylus The story goes that Edward III., following the soon added a second speaker and a chorus, example of the coronation of Petrarch at Rome, masks, scenery, etc., and is therefore called conferred a similar honor upon Geoffrey Chau- the "Father of Tragedy." At the festivals cer with the yearly pension of 100 marks and of Bacchus new plays were brought out yearly other perquisites. Although the Laureateship in competition. Eschylus won the prize every

year until he was fifty-six years old, when he was defeated by Sophocles. Greek comedy derived its origin from the revels of the Comus (God of revelry) during the Bacchic festivals. Its great master was Aristophanes, 444 B. C. FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES.

A bas.-Down with.

A capite ad calcem.-From head to foot.
A fin.-To the end.

Afortiori.-With stronger reason.
Al'abandon.-At random.

A la bonne heure.-Opportunely; in good time.
A la dérobée.-By stealth.

A la mode.-According to the fashion.
A main armée.-With force of arms.

A mensa et thoro.-From bed and board.

A posteriori.-From effect to cause; from the latter.
Apriori.-From cause to effect; from the former.
Atempo giusto.-To sing or play in true time. (Music.)
A tempo rimo.-To restore the original movement.
(Music.)

A vinculo matrimonii.—From the tie of marriage.
A votre santé.-To your health.
Ab extra.-From without.

Ab initio.-From the beginning.

Ab origine. From the beginning.

Ab ovo.-From the beginning.

Ab urbe condita. From the building of the city (Rome);
abridged A. U. C.

Abit invidia.-All offense apart; let there be no malice.
Absit omen.-May it not prove ominous.
Absque hac.-Without this or that.

Ac etiam.-And also.

Alto relievo.-High relief. (Sculpture.)
Alto violino.-A small tenor violin.
Alto ripieno.-The tenor of a great chorus.
Amende.-Compensation; apology.
Amicus curia.-A friend of the court.
Ami du peuple.-Friend of the people.
Amor patriæ.-Love of country.
Amour propre.-Self-love; vanity.

Ancien régime.-Former administration; ancient order
of things.
Andante.-Moderately slow movement, between largo
and allegro. (Music.)
Anglice.-In English.

Anguis in herba.-A snake in the grass.

Animis opibusque parati.-Ever ready with our lives
and property.

Animo et fide.-By (or with) courage and faith.
Animo facto.-Really and truly.

Animus furandi.-Felonious intent.

Anno Domini.-In the year of our Lord.
Anno lucis.-In the year of light.

Anno mundi.-In the year of the world.
Annus mirabilis.-Year of wonders.
Ante bellum.-Before the war.
Ante lucem.-Before light.
Ante meridiem.-Before noon.
Aperçu.-A brief sketch of any subject.
Appoggiatura.-A note in a smaller character than the
regular notes of the piece. (Music.)

Apropos (Fr. à propos).-To the purpose.
Aqua vito.-Water of life; brandy.

Arbiter elegantiarum.-Master of ceremonies; an um-
pire in matters of taste.

Arcana imperii.-State secrets.
Arcanum.-A secret.

Argumentum ad crumenam.-An argument to the
purse.

Actum est de republica.-It is all over with the com- Argumentum ad fidem.—An appeal to faith. monwealth.

Ad absurdum.-To show the absurdity.

Ad arbitrium.-At pleasure.

Ad astra per aspera.—To the stars through difficulties.
Ad captandum vulgus.-To catch the mob or the vulgar.
Ad eundem.-To the same point or degree.
Ad finem.-To the end.

Ad Græcas Calendas.-An indefinite postponement.
(The Greeks had no calends.)

Ad hominem.-To the man (that is, to the interests or
the passions of the man).

Ad infinitum.-Without end.
Ad inquirendum.-For inquiry.
Ad interim.-In the meanwhile.

Ad libitum.-At pleasure.

Ad litem.-For the action (at law).

Ad nauseam.-To a disgusting degree.

Ad referendum.-For further consideration.

Ad rem.-To the purpose.

Ad unguem.-To the nail; exactly; nicely.
Ad valorem.-According to the value.
Addendum.-An addition or appendix.

Adhuc sub judice lis est.-The affair is not yet decided.
Egrescit medendo.-The remedy is worse than the dis-

Alibi.-Elsewhere; not present.

Alis volat proprtis.-She flies with her own wings.
Atunde.-From some other quarter or person.

Argumentum ad hominem.-An argument to the person. Argumentum ad ignorantiam.-Aň argument founded on an adversary's ignorance of facts.

Argumentum ad judichum.-An appeal to the common sense of mankind.

Argumentum ad populum.—An appeal to the people.
Argumentum ad verecundiam.-An argument to mod-
esty.

Argumentum baculinum.-Club law.
Arioso.-Light, airy.

Armiger.-One bearing arms; an esquire.
Arpeggio.-The notes of a chord played in rapid suc-
cession, and not simultaneously. (Music.)
Arrière-pensée.--Mental reservation.

Ars est celare artem.-True art is to conceal art.
Assumpsit.-It is assumed or taken for granted.

Astra castra, Numen lumen.-The stars my camp, the
Deity my light.

At spes non fracta.-But hope is not broken.

Aujait.-Well instructed; master of it.

Au fond. To the bottom, or main point.
Au pied de la lettre.-Literally.
Au pis aller-At the worst.
Au revoir.-Farewell.

Audi alteram partem.-Hear the other side.
Aura popularis.—The gale of popular favor.
Auri sacra fames.-The accursed thirst for gold.
Autre droit.-Another's right.
Autrefois. Another time.

Autre vie.-Another's life.

Aut vincere aut mori.-Victory or death.

Auto-da-fé, Auto-de-fe.-An act of faith; burning of
heretics.

Auxilium ab alto.-Help from on high.
Avant-coureur.-A forerunner.
Ave, Maria.-Hail, Mary.

Badinage.-Light or playful discourse.
Bagatelle.-A trifle.

Bas bleu.-A bluestocking; a literary woman.
Basso-continuo.-Thorough bass.
Basso-relievo.-Figures in low relief.
Bateau.-A long light boat.

Beau-idéal.-A model of ideal perfection.
Beau monde.-The fashionable world.

Bel esprit.-A brilliant mind.

Allegretto.-A movement quicker than andante, but not Bella-donna.-The deadly nightshade; fair lady.

so quick as allegro. (Music.)

Allemande.-A kind of German dance.

Alma mater.-Benign mother (applied to a university).

Alter ego.-A second self.

Alto octavo.-An octave higher.

Belles-lettres.-Polite literature.

Bellum internecinum.-A war of extermination.
Bellum lethale.-A deadly war.

Bene placito.-At pleasure. (Music.)

Benigno numine.-By the favor of Providence,

Bourgeois.-A citizen of the trading class; a printing Consensus facet legem.-Consent makes the law. type.

Contour.-The outline of a figure.
Contra.-Against.

Contra bonos mores.-Against good manners.
Contretemps.-A mischance; disappointment.

Brutum fulmen.-A harmless thunderbolt; unreasoning Coram nobis.-Before us.

Déjeuner à la fourchette.-A breakfast or luncheon Emeute.-Insurrection; uproar.

Empressement.-Eagerness; ardor.
En ami.-As a friend.
En avant!-Forward!

En flûte.-Carrying guns on the upper deck only.
En grande tenue.-In full dress.
En masse.-In a mass; in a body.
En passant.-By the way; in passing.
En rapport.-In communication.
En revanche.-In return.

En route.-On the way.
Enceinte.-Pregnant.

Enfans perdus.-Lost children; the forlorn hope.
Ennui.-Weariness; lassitude.

Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem.-By his
sword he seeks the calm repose of liberty.
Ensemble.-The whole taken together.

Entente cordiale.-The cordial understanding between
two countries.

Entre nous.-Between ourselves.

Entrée.-Entrance.

Entremets.-Small and dainty dishes set between the
principal ones at table.
Eo nomine.-By that name.

Equilibrium.-Equality of weight; even balance.
Ergo.-Therefore.

Eripuit cælo fulmen, sceptrumque tyrannis.

Dii majorum gentium.-The gods of the superior class; Esprit de corps.-The animating spirit of a collective