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NOTE. Since the foundation of the Government, the individual States have been represented the following number of times in Cabinet positions: Massachusetts, 30; New York, 29; Pennsylvania, 26; Virginia, 22; Ohio, 22; Maryland, 16; Kentucky, 15; Connecticut, 9; Indiana, 9; Georgia, 8; Tennessee, 8; Illinois, 7; Maine, 6; South Carolina, 6; Missouri, 6; Delaware, 5; Wisconsin, 5; Michigan, 5; New Jersey, 5; Mississippi, 4; North Carolina, 4; Iowa, 4; Louisiana, 3; Minnesota, 3; New Hampshire, 3; West Virginia, 3; Vermont, 2; Alabama, 1; Arkansas, 1; Colorado, 1; Nebraska, 1; California, 1; Oregon, 1. The States which have not been represented in the Cabinet are: Florida, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nevada, North Dakota, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Texas, Washington, Wyoming. The Postmaster-General was not considered a Cabinet officer until 1829.

Arthur

1881

1840 Cleveland
1841 Harrison.
Cleveland

Ark..

1885

Ind

1889

Mass..

1893

66

Ohio...

1895

Cal

1897

66

N. J

1897

JUSTICES OF THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT.
(Names of the Chief Justices in Italics.)

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Navarino-The fleets of England, France, and Russia
destroy 30 Turkish men-of-war, October 20, 1827.
Most notable of American naval battles preceding
Manila are the following:

Coast of Scotland-Paul Jones captures the Serapis
and Scarborough, 70 guns, September 23, 1779.
Off St. Kitts-The Constellation, 26 guns, captures the
French L'Insurgent, 40 guns, February 9, 1799.
Coast of United States-Constitution, 44 guns, sinks
the Guerriere, 38 guns, in 30 minutes, August 19, 1812.
Madeira-United States, 44 guns, captures the Mace-
donian, 40 guns, October 25, 1812.
Brazil-Constitution captures the Java, Dec. 29, 1812.
Demerara River-Hornet captures the Peacock, Feb-

From the naval battle of Salamis to the great sea fight at Manila is a "far cry," B. C. 480 to A. D. 1898, more than 2,000 years. Salamis was the first great recorded battle of the world. Salamis drove the Persians from Greek soil; Manila drives Spain from Asiatic waters. The loss of life at Salamis has been variously estimated at from 5,000 to 50,000; at Manila from 400 to 2,000. Triremes were at Salamis, and shield and sword and brute numbers; at Manila the hell of monster guns and ironclads, the scream of shell, and the carnage of high explosives. Salamis was fought in the youth of nations; Manila in the dawn of the greatness of the American people, the night of Spain. One notable parallel to Manila is found in the battle of the Nile, fought August 1, 1798-Lord Nelson and the English fleet against Ad-ruary 24, 1813. miral Brueys and the French fleet. Nine French lineof-battle ships were taken, two burned, and two escaped. The French L'Orient, with Brueys and 1.000 men on board, blew up, and only seventy or eighty escaped. Nelson's cry for this engagement was: Victory or Westminster Abbey!" Other famous sea contests of the world are:

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Winchelsea-English defeat 40 Spanish vessels and capture 36, August 29, 1350.

Harfleur-English capture or destroy 500 French vessels, August 15, 1416.

1607.

Lake Erie-Perry, with 54 guns, defeats English fleet with 63 guns, September 10, 1813.

Lake Champlain-McDonough, with 86 guns, defeats English fleet with 96 guns, September 11, 1814.

Manila Bay-Rear Admiral Dewey, with six ships: the Olympia (flagship), Boston, Baltimore, Petrel, Raleigh, and Concord, destroyed Spain's Asiatic Squadron, 13 vessels, under Admiral Montejo: Isla de Cuba, Isla de Luzon, Castilla, Don Antonio de Ulloa, Don Juan de Austria, Reina Cristina, Callao, El Cano, El Correo, General Lezo, Hercules, Marques del Duero, Rapido; also the navy yard and nine batteries. American' loss, eight wounded and about $5,000 damage to ships. Span

Gibraltar Bay-Dutch defeat the Spanish, April 25, Dover Strait-Dutch destroy the English fleet, Novem-ish loss, about 1.200 killed or wounded and some $6,000,ber 29, 1652.

Portsmouth-English defeat the Dutch and destroy 11 men-of-war and 36 inerchantmen, February 18, 1653. North Foreland-100 English and Dutch men-of-war engaged; 11 Dutch taken and 6 sunk, June 2, 1683. Coast of Holland-English sink 30 Dutch men-of-war, July 31, 1653.

Santa Cruz-Spanish fleet burned by the English, April 20, 1627.

1605.

Harwich-Dutch lose 18 ships to the English, June 3, Thames-Dutch lose to English 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals killed, and 4,000 seamen, July 25, 1666. Messina--Spanish fleet, 29 vessels, destroyed by English, July 11, 1718.

Gibraltar-English defeated combined fleets of Spain and France, September 13, 1782.

Trafalgar-Nelson sunk 10 French and Spanish vessels after fighting with 27 ships, 33 of the combined fleet; Nelson killed, October 21, 1805.

000 in vessels destroyed or captured. May 1, 1898.
Santiago de Cuba-Cervera's squadron of six vessels:
the Vizcaya, Almirante Oquendo, Maria Teresa, Cristo-
bal Colon, Furor, and Pluton, made a bold dash to
escape from the harbor, and was destroyed by Samp-
son's fleet: The Oregon, Iowa, Indiana, Texas, Brook-
lyn, Gloucester, and Vixen. American loss: 1 killed, 2
wounded. Spanish loss: 360 killed, 165 wounded, 1,650
taken prisoners. July 3, 1898.

engaged. Army losses: United States, 800 killed, 1.00
At Santiago de Cuba the armies and navies were both
wounded; Spain, 2,000 killed, 1.500 wounded, 1,650 taken
prisoners. Total army and navy losses: United States,
wounded, 3,300 taken prisoners.
801 killed, 1,002 wounded. Spain, 2,300 killed, 1,665

In all her naval conflicts with England, France, Spain, and the Tripoli pirates, the United States has never sustained what would be considered a crushing defeat. She has lost individual vessels, but only after the most desperate resistance, giving proof of the saying that "Americans do not fight to save their skins."

DICTIONARY OF HISTORY.

Abbeys and Monasteries robbed of their plate and jewels by William the Conqueror, 1069; entirely dis-sands of miles with dense forests of yellow cedar, white solved by Henry the VIII., 1540. This ruler suppressed in England and Wales 643 monasteries, 90 colleges, 2374 churches and chapels, and 110 hospitals; and had the abbots of Reading, Glastonbury, and St. John's, Colchester, hanged and quartered for refusing to surrender their abbeys, and denying his supremacy. Aberdeen, University of, founded 1477; King's College founded 1500; Marechal College founded 1593; the town of Aberdeen and its vicinity was visited by a destructive inundation August 8, 1829.

Aboukir, in Egypt, surrendered to the English forces March 18, 1801.

Abydos is a town of Asia Minor, situated on the Hellespont. Tradition places here the story of Hero and Leander; history tells that this was where Xerxes led his vast army over the Hellespont on a bridge of boats; and Byron here swam the Hellespont, and rendered it ever famous by his " Bride of Abydos." Acre, taken by Richard I. and other Crusaders July 12, 1191, after a siege of two years and the loss of 300,000 men; attacked by the French under Bonaparte, who, failing in the twelfth assault, retired with great loss of men, May 21, 1799.

Actium, in Epirus, naval battle of, which rendered Augustus master of the Roman Empire, September 2, 31 B. C.

Adrianople, taken by the Ottomans, 1360; taken from the Turks by the Russians, 1829. Agincourt, Battle of, between the French and English, gained by Henry V., October 25, 1415; 10,000 of the French killed and 14,000 taken prisoners, the English losing only 40. In the French army were four times as many men as in the English. Aix-la-Chapelle, taken by the French, 1793; and again, September 21, 1794; Congress at, September 29, 1818. Albans, St., the first battle between the Houses of York and Lancaster, in which the former was victorious, May 22, 1455; another battle was fought, February 2, 1461, between the Yorkists, under the Earl of Warwick, and the Lancastrians, under Queen Margaret; the latter were the victors.

Alderton Moor, Yorkshire, Battle of, where the Royalists routed the Parliamentarians, June 29, 1643. Alessandria, Italy, taken by the French, 1798; surrendered to the Austrians and Russians, July 24, 1799. Alexandria, Egypt, built by Alexander in 17 days, the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, B. C. 333; taken by Cæsar, B. C. 46; by Dioclesian, 296 A. D.; by the Persians, 615 A. D.; by the Saracens, 640 A. D; by the French, 1798. Battle of, between the French and English, in which the former were defeated, but the English general, Abercromby, was killed, 1801. Alhambra, The, is a palace and fortress of the Moors, founded about 1253, by Mohammed I. Celebrated as the palace of the kings of Granada. Its two courts, that of the Myrtles and that of the Lions, are beautiful examples of Arabian art in Spain. The Alhambra was surrendered to the Christians by the Moors about 1491.

Albinos, called also Leucoethiopes, or white negroes, and by the Dutch and Germans Kakerlaken, were at one time considered a distinct race, but closer observation has shown that the same phenomenon occurs in individuals of all races, and that the peculiar white appearance rises from an irregularity of the skin. The iris of the eye is red in the Albino. Albinoism occurs also in other mammalia, birds, and insects.

Alabama, first settlement was made by the French, at Mobile, in 1711. The commerce of the state is considerable, and its manufacturing interests are increasing rapidly; chiefly cotton and cotton goods, yarn, thread, iron, leather, and lumber. Its mining interests are being rapidly developed; but the principal industry is agriculture, cotton and corn being the leading productions. Various cereals, sugar cane, rice, and tobacco are also produced.

Alaska was purchased by the United States from Russia in 1867, for $7,200,000 in gold, and was formally taken possession of October 9th of the same year by General Rousseau on behalf of the United States, at New Archangel, on the Island of Sitka. With the islands, it comprises 580,107 square miles, or nearly one sixth of the entire area of the United States previous to this purchase. The land abounds in fur-bearing animals; the seas yield fur-bearing seals and others, and

fish in immense quantities. Among other important resources of the Territory are lumber and minerals of all kinds. The southwestern part is covered for thouspruce, and balsam fir. Among the valuable minerals, coal has been found at different places along the coast: petroleum, lead, iron, and graphite at various points; copper, marble, and sulphur in great abundance; also gold and silver and valuable stones, such as amethysts, garnets, agates, and carnelians. The climate of the Territory is very severe in the inland districts, but mild along the coast. At Fort Yukon the thermometer sinks as low as seventy degrees below zero in the winter; the summers are short and hot, the winters long and cold. In Southern Alaska the winter climate is the average winter climate of Kentucky, and the summer climate about that of Minnesota. The capital of Alaska is Sitka, and the Territory is governed by a Governor and other necessary officers appointed by the authorities at Washington. The trade of seal hunting is entirely in the hands of the Alaska Commercial Company, who in 1870 secured, by Act of Congress, a monopoly of this business for twenty years. They are not allowed, however, to kill the animals except during certain months in the year, nor more than a specified number annually. Alexandrían Library, consisting of 400,000 manuscripts, destroyed by fire B. C. 47. The second library, consisting of 700,000 volumes, was destroyed by the Saracens, under Caliph Omar, at whose command they for six months burned books instead of wood, for the purpose of heating water for their baths, 640 Á. D.

Algiers, formerly the country called Numidia, as united under Massinissa and Jugurtha. It became a Roman province 44 B.C.; afterwards it was independent, till the inhabitants invited Barbarossa the pirate to assist them against the Spaniards, who, however, seized it, 1516. Sometime afterward it became the property of the Turks; reduced by Admiral Blake, 1655: bombarded by the French, 1761; bombarded by the British fleet, and the Christian captives set free, August 27, 1816. The French army, under the command of General Bourmont, landed in the Bay of Sidi Feraeh, June 14, 1830; the city was taken July 5th; and the whole of the territory of Algiers was subsequently reduced, and became a province of France.

Altars, instituted by Pope Sixtus I., 117 A. D.; first Christian altar erected in Britain, 634; first consecrated by Pope Sylvester, 1334.

Amazons, The, made an irruption into Attica about 1209 B. C.; a queen of, visited Alexander the Great and cohabited with him, in the hopes of having issue, but died soon after her return home, 330 B. C.

America, first discovered by Columbus, 1492; South America, completely, by Americus Vespucius, a Florentine, and North America by John Cabot, a Venetian, 1497; thirteen colonies declared themselves independent of the British crown, July 4, 1776, and recognized as such by England, 1783. South American independence was established and recognized by the United States and England, who sent consuls to the new state, 1824. American Congress, first met at Philadelphia September 5, 1775; removed to Washington, 1801.

Amerigo Vespucci was a naval astronomer, from whom America accidentally received its name. He was born at Florence, March 9, 1451, and was at the head of a large Florentine firm in Seville in 1496. He fitted out Columbus' third fleet, and in 1499 himself sailed for the New World with Ojeda, and explored the coast of Venezuela. The accident which fastened his name on two continents may be traced to an inaccurate account of his travels published at St. Dié in Lorraine in 1507, in which he is represented to have reached the mainland in 1497 - which would have been before either Cabot or Columbus-and in which the suggestion is made that he should give his name to the world he had discovered. Anglesey, the Mona of the Romans, reduced by Julius Agricola, 76 A. D.; by the English, 1295. Anjou, Battle of, where the Duke of Clarence and 1,500 English were slain, 1421.

Anglo-Saxons, first landed in Britain 449.

Anointing, first used at the coronation of Alfred,

872.

Antioch, in Syria, built by Seleucus after the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 300; 100,000 of its inhabitants killed by the Jews in one day, B. C. 145.

Antonio, Battle of, in Mexico, between the Royalists and Independents, August 18, 1813; the latter were defeated.

Appian Way, aqueducts, etc., constructed at Rome, B. C. 311.

Arkansas (Bear State)-First settlement, by the French, at Arkansas Post, 1685. Admitted to the Union in 1836. Ranks fifth in cotton, ninth in mules, twentysecond in miles of railway, twenty-fifth in population and in square miles, thirty-first in wealth. The mineral resources of the State are very large, and receiving much attention. Stock raising is extensive. Agriculture is the chief industry; corn, cotton, and wheat being the leading productions. Oats, tobacco, sweet potatoes, and fine fruits are also produced to a considerable extent.

Arbela, Battle of, when Alexander conquered Persia, B. C. 331.

Arcadians, Colony of, conducted by Evander into Italy, B. C. 1243. Areopagus, The famous senate of, established at Athens in the reign of Cecrops, B. C. 1509.

Argentria, in Alsace, Battle of, where the German tribe, the Alemanni, were defeated by the Romans, with a loss of 35,000 out of 40,000 men, May, 378 A. D. Arizona was first explored by the Spaniards in 1526, and missions were established in this region before 1600. It ranks fifth in silver, eighth in sheep, ninth in gold. Mining and cattle raising are the chief industries.

Armada, The Spanish, consisting of 130 ships, with 50,000 men, arrived in the English channel July, 1588, but was dispersed by a storm.

Arms, Coats of, became hereditary in families in the latter end of the twelfth century. They took their rise from the knights painting their banners with different figures, to distinguish them in the Crusades. The arms of England and France were first quartered by Edward the III., 1358; the French arms discontinued by the English kings, January 1, 1801.

Army, first standing one in modern times, established by Charles VII. of France, 1445; introduced into England by Charles I., 1638; declared illegal, together with the Royal Guards, 1679.

Ascalon, Judea, Battle of, where Richard I. defeated Saladin's army of three hundred thousand men, 1191. Assyria, Kingdom of, began under Ninus, called Assur, B. C. 2084; lasted about one thousand two hundred and sixty-fours years, ending with Sardanapalus.

Athens, founded by Cecrops, B. C. 1571; kingdom ended in Codrus, 1070; governed by annual archons, 684; city taken by Xerxes, 480; by the Romans, 87; by the Venetians, A. D. 1204; by the Turks, 1687; by the Greeks,

1826.

Austerlitz, Battle of, December 2, 1805. Austria, anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans, taken from Hungary and annexed to Germany, when it received its present name, 1040; erected into a duchy, 1156; made an empire, August 11, 1804; Francis II., emperor of, made a formal resignation of the high office of Emperor of Germany, August 7, 1806. Austria and Russia united against France, August, 1805. The Austrian army, under Mack, surrendered at Ulm to Napoleon, October 20, 1805.

Avignon, taken from the Pope by the French, 1769; restored, 1773; declared to belong to France by the National Assembly, 1791; and confirmed by the congress of allied sovereigns, 1815.

Aztecs The, were the early inhabitants of Mexico, who became highly civilized, and adopted a monarchical form of government in 1352. Their most celebrated king was Montezuma-Illumicamina, who erected several magnificent buildings, the remains of which are still to be seen. They believed in a Supreme Being, whom they never represented by sculpture or painting, as they believed him to be invisible. The Aztecs were conquered by the Spaniards under Cortez, 1521.

Babylon, founded by Nimrod, the grandson of Ham, B. C. 2640; city walled, 1243; taken by Cyrus, 588: by Darius, 511. According to Herodotus, the ancient city of Babylon stood on a broad plain, and was an exact square, 120 stadia (equal to fourteen miles) each way, so that the entire circuit of the city was 480 stadia. It was surrounded by a broad and deep moat, full of water, behind which rose a wall 50 royal cubits (equal to 93% feet) in width, and 200 in height. On the top, along the edges of the wall, were constructed buildings of a single chamber, facing one another, leaving between them room for a four-horse chariot to turn. In the circuit of the walls were a hundred gates, all of brass, with brazen lintels, and side-posts. Subsequent writers reduce the circuit of the city to 360 stadia, and the height of the wall to from 60 to 70 feet. The other walls ran along the banks of the Euphrates, and the quays with which it

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was lined, each contained twenty-five gates, which answered to the number of the streets they led into. The most remarkable edifice in the city was the Temple of Bel, a pyramid of 8 square stadia, the basement stage being over 200 yards each way. On the summit were a golden image of Bel, 40 feet high, two other statues of gold, a golden table 40 feet long and 15 broad, and many other colossal objects of the same precious metal. At the base was a second shrine, with a table and images, and altars. A similar temple stood at Borsippa, the suburb of Babylon; and it is believed that the ancient Babel of the Bible was also at Borsippa, a little below the later Babylon. The city came prominently into notice about 747 B. C., but its great importance dates from the fall of Nineveh, when Nabopolassar made it the capital of the Chaldean empire, and began the series of fortifications and public works, completed by his son, Nebuchadnezzar. It was several times dismantled, and, when Alexander the Great took possession of it, was a comparative ruin. Much of the material from which it was built was used by his successors to build Seleucia. That city, in its turn, fell into decay, and from its material several other cities were built, among them Bagdad. Since 1847 it has been established beyond reasonable doubt that the village Hilleh is located on the site of ancient Babylon.

Baltimore, Battle of, in which 9,000 British, under General Ross were repulsed by the Americans, and General Ross killed, September 12, 1814.

Bannockburn, Battle of, between 30,000 Scotch and 200,000 English, when the latter were routed with a loss of 50,000 slain, and 30,000 prisoners, June 25, 1314.

Barbers, the profession first brought to Rome from Sicily, B. C. 299; barbers and surgeons in London made one company, 1540; separated, 1744. They formerly exhibited a head or poll at their doors, and the barber's pole now used by them is a burlesque imitation of it. Barcelona, said to be built by Hamilcar, the Carthaginian general, who subdued Spain; reduced by Louis XIV. of France, 1714.

Baron, Title of, first used in England, 1388. The barons attended Parliament in complete armor, in the reign of Henry III.

Baronets, English, first_created, 1611; Scotch, 1625; thirteen new ones created, December 9, 1827.

Bastille, at Paris, taken, and the governor killed, June 14, 1789.

Bastille,this famous French stronghold was originally built by Charles V., as a chateau, in 1369. The high wall around it was subsequently erected by Philippe-Auguste. Louis XI. first used it asa state prison, and it was eventually demolished by the people during the Revolution, July 14, 1789. The "Man in the Iron Mask" was imprisoned there, and died in 1703.

Battle of Lake Erie, between the British squadron, commanded by Captain Barclay, and the United States, commanded by Captain Perry, in which the whole British force was captured, September 16, 1813.

Belgium, incorporated with the French republic, September 30, 1794; incorporated with Holland by the Congress of Vienna, 1815; declared itself independent, October 4, 1830, and has since chosen a king as its ruler. Belgrade, Battle of, between the Germans and Turks, when the latter were beaten and lost 40,000 men, 1456; the city taken by the Turks, 1690; battle of, between the Hungarians under Prince Eugene, and the Turks, when the latter were defeated, July 16, 1717.

tlements destroyed by a hurricane, October 11, 1780. Bermuda Islands, discovered 1609; settled 1612; set

nomadic life. Living in the desert of Arabia, they have Bedouins, The, are that class of Arabs who lead a

evolved characteristics as robbers and herdsmen intimately connected with their mode of life. Keen of physical sense, with active imagination, yet destitute of solid knowledge, the Bedouin unites independence and love of liberty, with a violent passion, an infamous love of plunder, and an entire disregard of the rights of property. They are professedly Mohammedan. Bigamy is rare; polygamy scarcely known.

Bible Societies, first commenced under the auspices of Granville Sharp, March 7, 1804; the pope issued a bull against them, March 20, 1807.

Bithynia, a kingdom of Asia, conquered by Croesus, king of Lydia, B. C. 560; by Alexander, 332. From its ruins rose the Ottoman Turks, who made Prusa their capital before they possessed Constantinople, 1327.

Blenheim, Battle of, between the English and French, when the latter were defeated, with a loss of 27,000 killed and 13,000 prisoners; while the total loss of

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