After Jefferson's death, the University became heavily indebted, until the state legislalature freed its annual appropriation from all incumbrances. A medical school was added in 1827, which has since been enlarged by schools of medical jurisprudence, of surgery, and anatomy. In 1851 the Law School was created, followed in 1856, by the two schools of language and of history, the last of which was endowed with $50,000 by W. W. Corcoran. A school of technology was added in 1867, followed in 1870 by the establishment of a school of agriculture, on Samuel Miller's endowment of $100,000. An astronomical observatory was given by Leander J. McCormick in 1882. Connected with it was Professor Sylvester, the famous mathematician. During the war, instruction in the University was suspended. In October, 1895, the Rotunda and Annex built by Jefferson were destroyed by fire, including many books and works of art. Since that time sufficient funds have been raised among the alumni to restore these buildings, and to erect a public hall, physical and chemical laboratories, costing in all, $250,000. The Rotunda, henceforth, is to be used for library purposes only. Westminster Palace was erected in 1840 on the site of the old houses of Parliament, which were destroyed by fire in 1834. It is 900 feet long by 300 feet wide, is built of limestone from the Yorkshire quarries, and cost about $8,000,000. The palace contains the House of Lords and the House of Commons, which are separated by an octagonal hall with a diameter of 70 feet. The House of Lords is 100 feet long, 45 feet wide, and 45 feet high. The room is profusely decorated, and in niches between the windows are statues of barons who signed the Magna Charta eighteen in number. The gorgeous gilt and canopied throne which is occupied by the Queen when she opens Parliament is in this room, as is also the wool-sack- a large, square bag of wool covered with red cloth of the Chancellor of Great Britain. The House of Commons is not as handsome as the House of Lords in the matter of decorations, and is not so long, but is the same height and width. The palace also contains a number of other rooms, among which are the Queen's robing room, the guard room, the libraries, committee rooms, etc. In the center of the edifice, above what is known as the Octagon Hall, is a tower 300 feet high. At the southwest corner is the Victoria tower, 346 feet high. At the northwest corner is the clock tower, which is surmounted by a belfry spire 320 feet high. In this tower is a clock with four faces, each 30 feet in diameter, and the hours are struck on a bell called "Big Ben," which weighs nine tons. At the southwestern extremity of the building is the state entrance of the Queen, which communicates directly with what are known as the royal apartments. The entrance to the Octagon Hall is by a passage known as Saint Stephen's Hall, which communicates also with Westminster Hall, a much older building, on the north. West Point Academy. Each Congressional District and Territory, also the District of Columbia, is entitled to have one cadet at the United States Military Academy at West Point, the cadet to be named by the representative in Congress. There are also ten appointments at large, specially conferred by the President of the United States. The number of students is thus limited to 344. The course of instruction, which is quite thorough, requires four years, and is largely mathematical and professional. The discipline is very strict -even more so than in the army — and the enforcement of penalties for offenses is inflexible rather than severe. Academic duties begin September 1st and continue until June 1st. From the middle of June to the end of August cadets live in camps, engaged only in military duties, and receiving practical military instruction. Cadets are allowed but one leave of absence during the four years' course, and this is granted at the expiration of the second year. The pay of a cadet is $540 a year. Upon graduation, cadets are commissioned as second lieutenants in the United States Army. Music. The cradle of music was Egypt. The Hebrews took with them to Palestine the songs they had learned there, and many of the hymns of the early Christian Church were necessarily old Temple melodies. Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan (374), and after him Pope Gregory the Great (590), were the fathers of music in the Western Church. Harmonies were introduced in the ninth century; the present musical notation was invented by Guido Aretino (d. 1055); counterpoint was perfected by the Belgian Josquin Despres (d. 1521), and the Italian Palestrina (1555); and Italian opera was founded in 1600. The influence of the Italian school spread all over Europe; but in the sixteenth century England had a national school of her own, comprising such names as Tallis, Farrant, and Orlando Gibbons. Among the great composers of the seventeenth century were Monteverde in Italy, Lully in France, and Purcell in England. In the eighteenth century music made enormous advances, especially in Germany. Church music attained to its highest development under Bach, the oratorio under Handel (16851759), the opera under Mozart and Gluck, and orchestral music under Haydn and Bee- the chief exponents have been Wagner thoven (1770-1827). The nineteenth century (1813-'83) and Liszt (d. 1886). Other leadhas been illustrated by such names as Men- ing composers are Gounod, in France; Boito, delssohn, Weber, Meyerbeer, Auber, Schubert, in Italy; Rubinstein and Brahms, in GerSpohr, Schumann, Chopin, Rossini, Bellini, many; Dvorák, in Bohemia; Grieg, in ScanVerdi; and in England, Sterndale, Bennett, dinavia, and Sullivan, Mackenzie, Stanford, and Macfarren. Of the later German school and Cowen, in England. this country 536 corps and outposts and 1,487 officers, and 15,000 adherents. The value of the property held by the United States wing of the Army is $175,000. The Salvation Army. The Salvation Army is a missionary organization set on foot in England by William Booth, who was called the "General" of the Army. The plan of operation is for a company to march about United States Naval Academy at cities, towns, and villages, singing popular Annapolis. There are allowed at the Acadsacred songs and speaking between whiles for emy one naval cadet for each member or about five minutes. The Army has also a large delegate of the United States House of Reprenumber of religious periodicals and small books. sentatives, one for the District of Columbia, Mr. Booth was a minister of the Methodist New and ten at large. The appointment of cadets Connexion, which he left in 1861 to begin “re- at large, and for the District of Columbia, is vivalistic services" in a tent in Whitechapel. made by the President. The Secretary of the In 1865 his little band of followers called them- Navy, as soon after March 5 in each year as selves The East London Christian Revival possible, must notify in writing each member Society," afterwards changed to The Chris- and delegate of the House of Representatives tian Mission." In 1869 the Mission made ex- of any vacancy that may exist in his district. peditions to provincial towns. Lastly, in 1873, The nomination of a candidate to fill the vacancy the name was changed to "The Salvation is made on the recommendation of the member Army." Its literary organ, called The Christian or delegate, by the Secretary. Candidates Mission, first appeared monthly in 1874. In must be actual residents of the districts from 1879 it was called The Salvationist and in the which they are nominated. same year its title was changed into The War Cry. Its flag now flies in thirty-four countries or colonies, where, under the leadership of 11,149 men and women, whose lives are entirely given up to the work, 49,800 religious meetings are held every week. The Army has 27 weekly newspapers and 15 magazines, with a total annual circulation of 49,015,044. has accumulated $4,015,085 worth of property, pays rentals amounting to $1,100,000 per annum for its meeting places, and has a total income from all sources of $3,750,000. The Army literature is issued in 15 languages and services are held in 29 languages. The nummber of local officers, bandsmen, and office employees is 23,540. The United States branch was established in 1880. There are now in It The course of naval cadets is six years, the last two of which are spent at sea. Candidates, at the time of their examination for admission, must not be under fifteen nor over twenty years of age, and physically sound, well formed, and of robust condition. They enter the Academy immediately after passing the prescribed examinations, and are required to sign articles binding themselves to serve in the United States Navy eight years (including the time of probation at the Naval Academy), unless sooner discharged. The pay of a naval cadet is five hundred dollars a year, beginning at the date of admission. Appointments to fill all vacancies that occur during a year in the lower grades of the Line and Engineer Corps of the Navy and of the 1898 Gregory, Edward John. Hook, James Clarke. 1896 Jackson, Thomas Graham. 1877 Davis, Henry Wm. Banks. 1891 Dicksee, Frank. 1887 Fildes, S. Luke. 1895 Ford, Edward Onslow. 1893 Gilbert, Alfred M. V. O. 1863 Goodall, Frederick. 1881 1880 1876 1894 Prinsep, Valentine C. 1895 Richmond, Sir William Blake, K. C. B. 1881 Rivière, Briton. 1869 Sant, James. 1897 Sargent, John Singer. 1877 Shaw, Richard Norinan. 1887 Stone, Marcus. 1888 Thornycroft, Wm. Hamo. 1885 Waterhouse, Alfred. 1895 Waterhouse, John William. 1878 Yeames, Wm. Frederick. Honorary Retired Academicians -1853. William Powell Frith; 1857, Frederick R. Pickersgill; 1864, Thomas Faed; 1867, George F. Watts; 1864, John Calcott Horsley. Honorary Retired Associates - Henry Le Jeune, Erskine Nicol, Frederic Stacpoole. Presidents of the Royal Academy - 1768, Sir Joshua Reynolds; 1792, Benjamin West; 1805, James Wyatt; 1806, Benjamin West; 1820, Sir Thomas Lawrence; 1830, Sir Martin A. Shee; 1850, Sir Charles Eastlake; 1866, Sir Edwin Landseer, elected, declined, Sir Francis Grant; 1878, Sir Frederic Leighton (Lord Leighton); 1896, Sir John Everett Millais, Bart; 1896, Sir Edward John Poynter. The The Seven Bibles of the World are sayings of the best sages on the ethico-political the Koran of the Mohammedans, the Eddas of duties of life. These sayings cannot be traced the Scandinavians, the Try Pitikes of the to a period higher than the eleventh century Buddhists, the Five Kings of the Chinese, the before Christ. The Three Vedas are the most Three Vedas of the Hindoos, the Zendavesta, ancient books of the Hindoos, and it is the and the Scriptures of the Christians. opinion of Max Müller, Wilson, Johnson, and Koran is the most recent of these seven Bibles, Whitney that they are not older than the and not older than the seventh century of our eleventh century before Christ. The Zendaera. It is a compound of quotations from the vesta of the Persians is the grandest of all the Old and New Testaments, the Talmud, and sacred books, next to our Bible. Zoroaster, the Gospel of St. Barnabas. The Eddas of whose sayings it contains, was born in the the Scandinavians were first published in the twelfth century before Christ. Moses lived fourteenth century. The Pitikes of the Bud- and wrote his Pentateuch in the fifteenth cendhists contain sublime morals and pure aspira-tury before Christ, and therefore has a clear tions, and their author lived and died in the sixth century before Christ. There is nothing of excellence in these sacred books not found in the Bible. The sacred writings of the Chinese are called the Five Kings, king meaning web of cloth, or the warp that keeps the threads in their place. They contain the best margin of three hundred years older than the most ancient of the sacred writings. Nationality of the Popes. The various nations of Europe are represented in the list of Popes as follows: English, 1; Dutch, 1; Swiss, 1; Portuguese, 1; African, 2; Austrian, 2; Spanish, 5; German, 6; Syrian, 8; Greek, 14; French, 15; Italian, 197. Eleven | art through all its stages in the classic days of Popes reigned over 20 years; 69, from 10 to Greece, till its decline in Rome, where, though 20; 57, from 5 to 10; and the reign of 116 all the treasures of the Grecian sculptors had was less than 5 years. The reign of Pius IX. been carried to deck the Roman capital, the art was the longest of all, the only one exceeding never became naturalized. During the long 25 years. Pope Leo XIII. is the 258th Pontiff. and gloomy interval of barbarism that sucThe full number of the sacred college is 70, ceeded the downfall of Imperial Rome, sculpnamely: cardinal bishops, 6; cardinal priests, ture, with the sister arts, lay dormant and for50; cardinal deacons, 14. At present there gotten. At length, however, through the are 62 cardinals. The Roman Catholic hier- genius of Michael Angelo Buonarroti, and the archy throughout the world, according to skill and perseverance of some of his disofficial returns published at Rome in 1884, tinguished successors, seconded by the patronconsisted of 11 patriarchs, and 1,153 arch- age of the illustrious house of Medici, the bishops and bishops. Including 12 coadjutor treasures of antiquity were collected, and or auxiliary bishops, the number of Roman modern art nobly tried to rival the grace and Catholic archbishops and bishops now holding sublimity which existed in the ancient models. office in the British Empire is 134. The num- Though till within the last century it could bers of the clergy are approximate only. hardly be said that a British school of sculpWilliam and Mary College was es-ture existed, yet the talent that has been suctablished at Williamsburg, Va., in 1693, and next to Harvard College is the oldest institution of learning in America. At its endowment it was placed under the patronage of the King and Queen of Great Britain. The trus-ter in this department of art. In the United tees of the Hon. R. Doyle, the English philosopher, who left his personal estate for "charitable and pious uses," presented a great part of it to this college for the education of Indians. During the Revolutionary war the college lost most of its possessions, and its buildings were used by the French troops as a hospital. Among the noted men who were graduated from William and Mary, were Presidents Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, Chief Justice Marshall, and General Scott. cessfully called into action has produced many works of sterling merit. The names of Flaxman, Chantrey, Baily, and Westmacott, are alone sufficient to redeem the national charac States, the productions of Greenough, Powers, and other distinguished artists, have been received with admiration by the most fastidious connoisseurs. The very essence of sculpture is correctness; and when to correct and perfect form is added the ornament of grace, dignity of character, and appropriate expression, as in the Apollo, the Venus, the Laocoon, the Moses of Michael Angelo, and many others, this art may be said to have accomplished its purpose. SCHOOLS OF ART. 66 Certain modes of drawing and painting, followed by pupils of a great master, have led to the foundation of well defined schools" of painters, since the revival of the Art among the Byzantine and Tuscan painters of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, which diverged into the Florentine and Genoese schools (Cimabue and Giotto taking the head of the former), and the schools of Umbria and Bologna. The fifteenth century was the great period of artistic development, whence we may trace modern excellence, commencing with the Florentine School, at the head of which were Fiesole and Masaccio. This school diverged Sculpture, the art of giving form and expression, by means of the chisel and other implements, to masses of stone or other hard substances, so as to represent figures of every description, animate and inanimate. It is generally thought that sculpture had its origin from idolatry, as it was found necessary to place before the people the images of their gods to enliven the fervor of their devotion. But to form conclusions concerning the rise and progress of the arts and sciences, without the aid of historical evidence, by analogies which are sometimes accidental, and often fanciful, is a mode of reasoning which, at best, must ever be liable to suspicion. In whatever country the earliest attempts were made, the Egyp-into the different styles, consisting of -1. tians were the first who adopted a certain style of art. Their works were gloomy and grave, but still they were full of deep sentiment, and connected, as would appear by the hieroglyphics which covered them, with poetry and history, and by the mummies, with the belief of immortality. Interesting as the subject would doubtless prove, it is far beyond our limited means to trace the progress of this beautiful Such as studied exact natural truth, and whose first exponent was Ghirlandajo; 2. Such as combined therewith a species of poetic treatment, as Fra Filippo Lippi, Sandro Botticelli, and Benozzo Gozzoli; 3. Such as adopted a sculpturesque treatment of the figure, as seen in works of Andrea del Castagno, Antonio Pollajuolo, and Andrea Veroccio. During the first half of the sixteenth century, this school "This was adorned by the genius of Leonardo da teachings of nature, and led to the adoption of Vinci and Michael Angelo. individual whims, which, following so rapidly The Roman School (into which that one upon another, caused the school to sink Bologna Romagna merged) is the most im- from Guido Reni, and Guercino, to Giordano. portant for its solid and legitimate effect; a Nicolas Poussin endeavored to prop its fall by result which may be attributed to the purity of a reversion to the purer principles of classic study and delicacy of feeling engendered by Art; but neither his genius, nor that of the its great head, Raffaelle Sanzio d'Urbino, fol- men who had ranked themselves as opposers of lowed out by Giulio Romano, Mazzolina di the school under the name of Naturalisti, Ferrara, Zucchero, Baroccio, Carlo Maratti, could prevent the decay of Italian Art. and others. decline resulted with many painters from a light and pleasing but superficial invention, accompanied by a corresponding skillful but decorative treatment; in others, it proceeded from a close but spiritless adherence to a set of obsolete rules, which destroyed the peculiarity of individuals as well as of schools. With few exceptions, sound technical science, as the basis of manipulation in painting, was lost." The Venetian School gloried in its color, and the magic pencil of Titian gave it a position for which Giorgione and Sebastian del Piozbino had but prepared it. The pupils and successors of him who " dipped his pencil in the rainbow," viz. Bonifazio, Bordone, Tintoretto, Paul Veronese, Bassano, Garofalo, and others, followed in his footsteps, and gave this school a European renown. The Lombard School, also known as that of the Eclectics, was established by the Caracci, the principles of which have been explained by Agostino in a sonnet of his own composing, which may be thus translated: "Adopt the design of the Romans, with the color of the Lombard school, adding the motion and shade of that of Venice. Join the just symmetry of Raphael with the power of Michael Angelo, the purity of Correggio, the truth of Titian, the decorum and solidity of Tebaldi, the learned invention of Primaticcio, and a little of Parmigiano's grace.' To this school belong Correggio and Parmigiano, and such were the painters from whom the Carracci were induced to select the qualities of the Eclectic style; for Agostino and Annibal were, at the commencement of their career, unacquainted with the works of the originators of the beauties which they professed to imitate. Before opening their celebrated school, however, they visited Parma and Venice, and became familiar with the works of Correggio and Titian; but it was only mediately, through the works of the masters above mentioned, that they could demonstrate their principles to their scholars. The St. Cecilia of Raphael was not, and could not have been, taken as a standard of that great master. Lodovico is the real founder of the Bolognese school; he was the guide and instructor of his cousins, who were some years his juniors." Their style of proceeding in making up a painter according to their own recipe above given, has been severely commented upon by Fuseli in the eleventh lecture. Certainly with the age of the Macchinisti began the decadence of that great and pure Art revived again by the genius of Raphael; and a meretricious and untrue style, in which the dictum of the school took the place of the 66 The German School may be said to have originated with the versatile genius of Albert Durer, and was followed by Lucas van Leyden, Holbein, Netscher, Mengs and others. It was remarkable for a strict adherence to nature, and for much power of drawing, qualifications which still remain the chief characteristics of its modern disciples, under Cornelius, Kaulbach, and Overbeck. The Flemish School combines with German after the middle of the sixteenth century. Its early history begins with the Van Eycks, who have given to the world a school of their own in Roger of Bruges, Hans Hemling, Jan Mabuse, and Quentin Matsys. Its great glories center in Rubens and Vandyke; their works are remarkable for brilliance of color, exactness of drawing, and great command of chiaro-oscuro; but Rubens wants grace, and in founding his style on nature, relying on his power of exhibiting her as he saw her, he frequently lacks dignity. Teniers excelled in arrangement and harmony, though he very frequently lost his proper position in the lowness of his subjects. Steinwick, Spranger, Snyders, Neeffs, and others, may be particularized as among the remarkable men of a school which may be considered as the legitimate descendant of the Venetian school of colorists. The Dutch School is even lower in refinement; but the great genius displayed by its principal painter, Rembrandt, elevated it into importance. His marvelous power over light and shade was what the world had never before seen, and it has died with him who first exhibited it. It was too much the fault of this school to select the vulgarest scenes of life for the employment of the pencil; thus we find great power of drawing, coloring, and a perfect mastery of the mechanism of Art, combined with high artistic feeling, devoted to |