Another advantage is that Natorp, unlike Naegeli, does not conclude the subject of rhythm before proceeding to melody, and so on. He grades the different exercises proceeding from the first grade of rhythm to the first grade of melody, and from this to the first grade of dynamics. With melody, Natorp for the first time introduces the tones of the major chord for understanding and practice, first without, then with regard to rhythmic order. The other tones of the diatonic major scale follow the tones of the major chord. From here on the instruction consists altogether of practice. Nothing is offered but songs which contain elements that have been explained and practiced during the preceding lessons. Natorp uses dynamic exercises in combination with other elements, or in special lessons combined with melody. He uses ciphers as written characters instead of the customary notes.

Natorp's book is obscure on the psychological relation between the systematic or technical exercises and the songs and melodies learned. Nevertheless, the work met with general approval. For several decades it, together with Naegeli's "Art of Teaching," was considered authoritative on the teaching of singing; it molded the literature on the subject. The many text-books that appeared in the second and third decades incline either to Natorp or Naegeli. All deal with their subject synthetically; none proceeded from songs to study by way of analysis, in order to arrive at the elements of melody, rhythm, and dynamics.

Educators in Germany continued to interest themselves in methods of singing during the years from 1840 to 1850. Ernst Hentschel (musical director and teacher of the normal school in Weissenfels) brought about the next and most effectual measures for further improvement. He found fault that "in some schools pupils scarcely get as far as singing songs and hymns, being constantly kept at exercises in pitch, tempo, and note reading, etc. In many other schools singing of cheerful melodies was persisted in to the utter neglect of the formal end to be gained." Hentschel maintained that "the elementary course should combine technical exercises with singing of melodies, for both are important. Both should be taught during the entire school course. During the first two years, however, the pupils should sing by rote only; after that they should be taught altogether from notes." He urged that young children had enough difficulties in mastering the symbols of reading (letters) and arithmetic (ciphers). An 8-year old child might begin another set of symbols, the musical notes.

Hentschel's claims were soon admitted, and received full consideration in the "Course of study in singing for people's schools" by Friedrich Wilhelm Schuetze. He proceeded from the fundamental thought that "a child first receives the impression of an object in its entirety; after which it analyzes its individuality and examines the different parts severally." "Musical education, therefore, progresses conformably to natural law, if, as soon as sound becomes perceptible to a child,

repeated single tones, a succession of tones, sounds in rhythmic form, or, as should oftenest be the case, real musical compositions are presented to it, and it is thus first of all brought into contact with the world of sound." Consequently, "children must first become familiar with musical language in learning to sing by ear," and "subsequently in singing from written characters."

The valuation set by Hentschel upon songs as essential material for instruction in the theory, which valuation has remained unchanged to the present day, created the demand for suitable collections of songs. This demand was speedily supplied, and continues to act as a stimulus. to composers. Though it is a lasting honor for Hentschel to have assigned the proper place for songs in the course for people's or elementary schools, and to have pointed out their educational value, it is still claimed that the complete banishment of the technical exercises from the primary school is a mistake, because it breaks the uniform. connection of instruction. During the last ten years authorities in the method of singing, almost without exception, have decided upon the union of both. Hentschel himself modified his first opinion. As a rule songs are so combined with the elementary exercises that a greater or smaller number of exercises are directly supplemented by songs and hymns, the melodic and rhythmic construction of which embodies the elements of the preceding exercises. The only difference is that some lay the greater stress on the exercises, while others attach greater importance to the songs, to which the technical exercises are considered secondary. This naturally depends upon the musical education of the individual teacher.

To the text-books which make songs the living center of instruction belongs among others the "Theoretical and practical singing school," by Johann Rudolph Weber. This book advocates that the teaching of singing should be nothing more than "instruction which helps pupils on to songs." "The singing of songs and technical instruction in singing should be combined and support each other." "In every grade, the essential material of the organic (elementary) exercises consists of the elements of songs to be practiced and learned by heart, because to these as an entity in art the exercises are most easily applied." "Instruction must show the pupil how to perceive and recognize sounds severally in regard to time, tone, and volume." All the material for singing must be made "elementary." The simplest element, rhythm, forms the beginning. In connection with melodies the pupil becomes acquainted with major and minor chords, the chord of the dominant seventh, as well as with the foundation of all melodies, the major scales.

Departing from custom, J. G. F. Pflueger has adopted an analyticsynthetic method in his "Introduction to the teaching of singing in schools." After several introductory exercises, consisting of children's songs, the text and melody of which must be learned by ear, he develops the theory for the holding of tones, for pitch and volume, and the ideas

of scales, time, chords, and pauses; his lessons on notes, intervals, and the most familiar major and minor scales are directly connected with the preceding songs and hymns.

Pflueger advocates the method of induction, proceeding from simple tones and combinations of tones to the chief elements of music.

A warm interest is being shown at present in singing and in the instruction of vocal music. A number of practical educators are assiduous in their efforts so to plan instruction in singing in people's schools that it must lead to favorable results. Psychology and pedagogy suggest the principles for the perfection of methods.

(1) Instruction in singing must not be isolated; by means of song texts it must be kept in touch with other subjects.

(2) The concrete material for instruction in singing in sacred and national hymns and those peculiarly popular songs which in Germany for a long period of years have proved to be a real production of art.

、 (3) All technical exercises should proceed from songs and lead back to them; the elements for comparison in the process of abstraction should be taken from the melodies practiced.

(4) Symbols of tones, be they notes, ciphers, or letters, should be nothing more to the pupil than visible signs and forms for the special sensations of sounds. The eye should only support the ear.

PRESENT STATE OF METHOD IN GERMANY.

Dr. G. A. Lindner, in his Cyclopedia of Education, sketches the present state of method in teaching school singing in Germany. His sketch is here presented in translation:

In modern times instruction in singing has become an integral part of the course of study in common schools, because it is generally recognized that it forms the taste, ennobles the emotions, and proves to be also a good means of discipline, since it concentrates the attention and forms a means which will unite many into a community. The object of this instruction is to awaken a sense of melody, to promote the aesthetic and emotional training of children, and to stimulate patriotism.

In singingwe recognize three elements: (1) the melodic, which refers to the pitch of tone; (2) the rhythmic, which refers to the duration of tone; (3) the dynamic, which refers to the strength and volume of tone and also to correct expression. Melody gives life to the song, rhythm gives regularity, and expression causes impression. These three elements must be considered by the singing teacher. It will not do, of course, to treat the one element exclusively until all necessary information is given and then take up the next, but the essentials of each of the three elements are to be given, which are then followed by more difficult work; but whatever song is taken up, it is first the melodic, then the rhythmic, and, lastly, the dynamic element which must be considered. In other words, first the melody is taught, then the proper time, and, lastly, the expression by means of variations in the volume of tone. For the common school the melody is not only the most essential, but almost the exclusive element, for tempo and expression are subject to individual preferences and emotional conditions.

Concerning the method and the course of study for lessons in singing in the public schools, the following points may be considered to have found general approbation in Germany. During the first two years of school, singing is practiced by rote. The chief object here is the development of the voice and the musical ear; later on instruction is based upon the foundation of reading music. It is generally conceded

best to confine the children's knowledge to one key, making the Do movable as occasion requires. In German schools a number of popular songs of interest to children, both with reference to text and melody, are firmly memorized and frequently practiced. Above all, it has been found necessary to begin the singing of pleasant, catchy airs quite early, so that the musical ear be trained, and since Germans, as a rule, are very musical, it is found that mothers and nurse girls work hand in hand with the school teacher.

A second and higher step in the singing lessons is singing from notes. The pupil is introduced into the laws and symbols of the art of music. A song which he has learned by rote is analyzed into its elements, and the clements thus obtained are reduced to the scale, sharps and flats are introduced, and the various keys developed. Instruction in singing from notes should not be neglected, because the subsequent musical training of the pupil makes it very desirable that he have knowledge of music. Methodical instruction in singing by means of which the pupil obtains a clear consciousness of the intervals, time, etc., is not possible without the ability to read music. Moreover, in practicing songs of two, three, and four parts, it would be exceedingly tedious to learn the several parts by ear only, since the accompanying parts rarely carry melody, and thus will allure those who cannot read music to sing the treble "unisono." The success of any instruction in singing, however, lies not in the skillful reading of music, but in the production of melody; in other words, not in the notes, but in the tones. It is therefore very essential that the teacher should sing, or that he play a musical instrument, and thus make his pupils hear the tones which they are to sing.

In the lower grades of the school the greatest simplicity is the greatest art. In the selection of songs much care, taste, and tact are required. Cheerful, joyous songs are to be preferred, especially when they have some reference to nature and the seasons; also patriotic songs, and airs which express general human sentiments, such as popular airs. In the selection of these songs the scope of the voices of children must be considered. In schools where music is read, the various symbols or signatures are to be considered in class before the melody of the song is taken up. In order to secure firmness and skill in singing, songs that have been learned should be frequently practiced in class, especially if they are sung in two or three parts, because the musical ear, while very faithful to melody, is less efficient in retaining accompaniments.

The National Teachers' Association of Germany, in its meeting of 1879, passed a number of resolutions, a declaration of principles, as it were, concerning the instruction in music in the elementary schools. These theses deserve to be translated and reproduced here, since they express the theory and method followed generally in German schools.

(1) School should educate and instruct for life; hence for the instruction in music the same principle should prevail.

(2) School instruction in singing should, first of all, nurse German popular songs (Volkslieder).

(3) Artistic results can not be expected and must not be demanded, but an aspiration for musical perfection should be awakened in the pupils.

(4) No songs should be taught and practiced which are not of undoubted poetic and musical value.

(5) In the teaching of even the simplest popular song the object muɛt be to express that which poet and composer intended. The technique is not to be an aim but a

means.

(6) Music is not only to create pleasure in melody and harmony, but must have an ennobling effect upon the heart.

(7) Pedagogical treatment in music lessons presupposes a teacher who is professionally prepared and skilled in the art of music.

(8) The education of the German nation by means of music and through music has a national significance.

(9) Singing should be taught in every school, not in lessons after school hours, but during school sessions.

(10) Instruction in singing should be given with the aid of a musical instrument, be that the violin, piano, or organ, and such instruction can be successful only when the teacher is well trained in the use of his instrument.

(11) Every normal school should have an experienced singing teacher, who has been well trained both in music and pedagogy, is acquainted with the methods of composition, and understands the value of popular airs and hymns.

(12) It is the duty of school authorities to see to it that in every schoolhouse at least one teacher be engaged who is trained in music.

(13) No pupil shall be excused from taking part in singing lessons.

(14) Exercises in reading music should be a part of every singing lesson all through the course.

(15) As to the matter of instruction, popular airs (Volkslieder) and hymns should be preferred in elementary schools.

(16) Only such songs should be practiced whose texts express noble, refining sentiments. The texts must be brought to the comprehension of the pupils before they are memorized.

(17) Punishment should rarely be administered during singing lessons, corporal punishment never.

(18) Lessons in singing are most suitably reserved for the last hour of the forenoon or afternoon, since they serve as recreation after severe mental work.

SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF MATTER.

Mr. J. Helm, of Schwabach, Bavaria, Germany, an authority on school singing and methods of teaching, says with reference to the proper selection of songs that it is defined by the educational significance of singing and also by the position it occupies within the system of education. A translation of his opinion on this subject seems desirable, and is here inserted:

The beautiful is the sister of the good. The contemplation of the beautiful awakens a feeling of satisfaction similar to the contemplation of the good. Esthetic enjoyments elevate and idealize; they belong to the highest pleasures of life. Though moral education is the highest of all human education, the cultivation of tasto and artistic schooling are by no means superfluous. Occupation with art refines the mind, ennobles the emotions, and makes the individual moro sensitive to the highest, which is moral beauty. Within the wide compass of art, music, next to poetry, can be brought within easy reach of the young, and within the extensive domain of music nothing is better adapted for class instruction than singing. The combinations of tones which instruction in singing presents to the ear excite involuntary pleasure in the pupil, and offer him elements for his ideas of the beautiful.

Singing delights the human heart and enlivens and animates the emotions. It is the language of feeling, the expression for pleasure and sorrow. There is no purer or more productive source of pleasure, and no nobler or more beautiful form of expression for the feelings than song. Singing combines melodic, dynamic, rhythmic, and text elements in such perfect symmetry, and so smooths contradictions and restraints by harmonic combinations that nothing else can provoke greater æsthetic pleasure. If technically correct relations and combinations of tones are often brought to bear upon the pupil's mind, more agreeable feelings will predominate to the probable development of a bright and cheerful disposition. The latter factor, however, is one of the most important presuppositions for the development of the interest and