CHAPTER XII.

EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

By F. F. HILDER.

Mexico and the Republics of Central America have a history which is exceedingly interesting to every thoughtful and unprejudiced student of human life and progress on this continent.

To the people of this country Mexico has a peculiar interest, not only from her being our nearest southern neighbor, separated from us by a merely imaginary boundary line 1,250 miles in extent, but from the fact that in her long struggle for liberty she has always looked up to the United States as her model, and has proved her confidence in our institutions by adopting them as a basis for her own. In her efforts to establish a republican form of government Mexico has labored under tremendous disadvantages as compared with our own battle for independence.

English rule in this country was based on the spirit of liberty, and however far the Government may have departed from that spirit, the people of the colonies were enlightened and in every way prepared by nature and training for self-government. In Mexico and Central America the material for citizenship was very different. During the years of Spanish dominion the ruling class was Spanish or of Spanish blood. The Spanish-American or mixed race then had little influence, and a middle class hardly existed. There was only a ruling class, rendered autocratic and tyrannical by centuries of domination over a downtrodden and enslaved people, and the great toiling masses who lived the life of the serfs of feudal times, so ignorant that they did not know enough to be unhappy in their lot, nor to form plans to improve it.

The chaotic past has been very dark, and to the superficial observer it may have often appeared almost hopeless to expect that a free and progressive republic could arise from the discordant elements, but each upheaval has left the country a little in advance, and the outlook for the past few years has been brighter than ever before. In the construction of their constitutions the United States and Mexico made grievous errors, which in both instances came near destroying the Governments. The United States guaranteed slavery and made religion free. Mexico abolished slavery but restricted the right of worship to a single sect. Both of these errors have been rectified, but by a fearful expenditure of blood and treasure, and in the case of Mexico by the prolongation of her exhausting struggle for freedom.

The enlightened and sagacious statesmen of Mexico can look backward with pride on a history teeming with the details of a heroic struggle for liberty, and to the future as offering a brilliant prospect for the enjoyment of the benefits and blessings of republican institutions.

For the full fruition of their hopes and aspirations the great necessity is that the people, by the diffusion of knowledge and the spread of education, may become worthy citizens and judicious conservators of the liberty that has been won for them. Popular education must now do for Mexico what no other agency can accomplish toward building up a government "of the people, for the people, and by the people," whose foundations must be laid in an intelligent and self-respecting citizenship.

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The population of the Republic of Mexico in 1893 was 12,056,016. The predominating race, in numbers, of the present day is not the Indian, as in former times. An official authority classes the present population as consisting of 19 per cent European and Spanish-American, 38 per cent Indian, and 43 per cent of mixed blood.

There is now a very large and influential middle class, composed of both Indian and mixed races, which is every year, by the spread of education, gaining large accessions from the humbler class, who are making wonderful progress by aid of the fine educational advantages now offered them. It is from this class that are springing from year to year men of genius and talent, who by toil and study are taking their position in the front rank of the army of progress, in commerce, literature, art, and science, which is the reward of labor, fidelity, and patience.

It is to the credit of the statesmen who have directed the career of the country in its heroic struggle for liberty that they have always recognized the fact that popular education is one of the primary functions in the life of the State; that no republican form of government can exist without it, and that the question of the education of its citizens is one which concerns the life and permanence of the State. They saw clearly that it was a question for the State, and one that could not be left to a church or a parent to decide; that the Republic must claim the right to educate its citizens, not only from a humanitarian point of view, but to preserve its integrity and existence.

In spite of all the unrest and turmoil of the years which followed the downfall of the Spanish power in Mexico, the attention of the Government was directed toward the question of education. The first law on the subject, which was compiled by Don Jose Louis Mora, during the presidency of Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna, was promulgated in October, 1833. It was based upon advanced and liberal principles, and contained an excellent plan of study for use in the public schools. It, however, contained also a provision authorizing the appropriation of some real estate belonging to the church to provide the necessary funds. The clergy were excluded from taking any part in public education maintained at the expense of the Government, and the ancient Clerical University was suppressed.

The reactionary and clerical party were strong enough to create a revolution, which resulted in the restoration to the church of the property which had been taken, and the reestablishment of the university under the direction of the clergy.

For several years the country was convulsed by war with France and civil war within its borders, but in spite of these troubles the cause of education was not lost sight of, and in August, 1813, the Government issued a decree for the purpose of establishing uniformity in methods of teaching and a graded system of classes in the schools. In November of the same year a decree was published centralizing in the City of Mexico the whole direction of the educational system of the country. This remained in force until October, 1846, when the centralization was abolished and the right returned to the states to control the educational systems within their own boundaries.

The war with the United States for several years prevented any progress in national educational matters, and the revolution of 1852, which led to the establishment of the dictatorship of General Santa-Anna, again caused a retrograde movement toward the old antidemocratic system. In 1855 this insupportable tyranny was overthrown and a constitutional republic was established, one of the first acts of which was to restore the educational law of 1843. In April, 1861, when Don Ignacio Ramirez was minister of justice, he obtained the passage of another law on the subject, which was one of the most liberal that had been promulgated, and true to the spirit of the law of 1833. The disturbed condition of the country, the invasion by the French army, and the disastrous reign of Maximilian prevented a practical application of the law, and it was not until the establishment of a constitutional republic that the cause of education emerged from the deplorable condition into which it had fallen during the continuance of the struggle which had convulsed the country. A law was passed in December, 1867, for reopening the establishments for secondary instruction, which

had been closed; for the improvement of the primary schools, and to eliminate from the methods of teaching such ideas as were not in harmony with republican principles. This law was amended by another promulgated May 15, 1869, giving a still greater impetus to instruction, extending the privilege of education to all social classes, and making primary instruction obligatory in the federal district and territories. At last, after fifty years of almost continuous wars and revolutions, the party of liberal opinions had definitely triumphed. The results of this triumph have been the complete separation of church and state, universal religious toleration, a constitution based on the broadest republican principles, a free press, and free schools. As the ground swell which had been raised on the sea of Mexican life by the storms that had swept over it subsided and the ship of state floated in calmer waters, a tremendous task lay before the Government, nothing less than the education of millions of poor and ignorant people in the knowledge to be obtained from books, in the habit of thinking, and in all the essentials of self-respecting citizenship. Under the most favorable circumstances considerable time must be required for such an undertaking. Nothing can hasten beyond a certain point the solution of the problem, and it is not surprising that great difficulties were encountered.

In April, 1873, the Government formulated another plan for public instruction, but owing to unforeseen obstacles was unable to put it in operation. In October, 1887, the committee on public instruction of the House of Deputies presented a bill to enforce compulsory education within the Federal District and Territories, which became a law in 1888.

The principal provisions of this law were the making primary instruction obligatory and free for all children between the ages of 6 and 12 years, directing the establishment of a primary school for boys and another for girls for every 4,000 inhabitants, which proportion might be raised in the Territories of Tepic and Lower California, the schools to be placed under control of the local authorities, who were to have control of the funds and appoint directors and teachers.

For the support of the schools the law provided that subsidies should be made from time to time by the Federal Government, and appropriations by municipal corporations from taxes levied for the purpose, and from such fines as might be imposed by law and devoted to the schools. In order to carry out the principle of compulsory education, all persons having charge or control of minors were required to prove that the children for whom they were responsible had received the necessary primary education. The penalty for violation or neglect of this order was fixed at from 10 cents to $10, or from one to ten days' imprisonment.

The law required that this plan should be put in operation within one year, but as it was desired to extend its provisions to all the States of the Republic its organization was suspended until this object could be attained.

Here was encountered the principal difficulty caused by a lack of uniformity. In all educational matters a condition of chaos existed, as every State had its own school legislation; hence there was no uniform system in the curricula of secondary schools and preparation of teachers, while in the primary schools matters were still more complicated by changes and modifications made by municipal authorities. Educational theories were taken from foreign pedagogical works without being thoroughly understood, and new methods and ideas were blindly accepted or rejected. Even in the course of a single school year changes were made and courses lengthened or shortened, to the confusion and bewilderment of both students and teachers.

With a view to overcoming these difficulties, and to establish a uniform system in the legislative and scholastic regulations throughout the Republic, and to secure more satisfactory results from the efforts and sacrifices made by the Government in the cause of education, Señor Joaquin Baranda, minister of justice and education, one of the most enlightened and progressive of Mexican statesmen, issued a circular in June, 1889, for the purpose of organizing in the City of Mexico a congress to be composed of eminent educators and representatives from the different States, to be appointed by their respective governors. This was followed by another circular

issued on October 5 of the same year, requesting the governors to furnish for the use and guidance of the convention statistics giving the number of pupils receiving instruction in the schools, number of schools, resources for their maintenance, and copies of all the laws, regulations, programmes, and rules for study in use in their respective States.

The convention met on November 28 in the chamber of the House of Deputies in the City of Mexico, under the presidency of Señor Baranda, and the formal sessions commenced on December 1. It remained in session until March 31, 1890.

The points submitted for the deliberation of the convention are comprised in the following extract from the circular issued by the minister:

"First. Primary, laic secular instruction, compulsory and gratuitous, including the age at which children should be received, the classes to be taught, the progressive order of study, the number of years to complete the course, the means of enforcing compliance with the rules, the establishment in towns of small schools for children and adults, and of rural schools, with itinerant teachers.

"Second. Preparatory instruction, gratuitous and voluntary, including the studies necessary for a complete and vigorous course, such as preparation for professions, the scientific distribution and order in which they are to be taught, the programme, and number of years to complete the course.

"Third. Professional instruction, voluntary and protected by the State, including the subjects to be comprised in each course, the order and method of teaching, number of years to complete the course, practical professional programmes, and rules for professional examinations."

The work of the congress on all these points was well done, and immense progress was made in the direction of insuring uniformity in methods of national education, but in spite of the admirable spirit and industry of the delegates many minor questions were left unsettled at the conclusion of their labors.

In order to continue and perfect the work the minister of justice addressed another circular to the governors of the States, dated June 19, 1890, requesting them to appoint delegates to a second educational convention to be opened on December 1 of the same year. This convention met at the appointed time and completed the work assigned to it, closing its sessions in March, 1891.

The work of these pedagogic congresses was very effective in harmonizing and introducing uniformity of administration; in awakening and renewing public interest in the establishment of schools and the whole subject of public education, and have promoted the adopting of measures which are a happy combination of local independence, with a degree of centralization sufficient to insure greater economy of means and equality of conditions and methods of instruction.

The result of the work done by these two conventions was embodied in a law promulgated by the Executive of the Republic on March 21, 1891, to take effect January 7, 1892.

The principal provisions of this law may be stated as follows:

Primary elementary instruction made obligatory for children of both sexes from 6 to 12 years of age, and may be obtained in any public or private school, or from private tutors, instruction in the public schools to be laic (secular) and gratuitous. The course of obligatory primary instruction for boys, to be completed in four years, to comprise:

Instruction in the practical and civic duties of life; the national language, including reading and writing; arithmetic; rudiments of physics and natural sciences; elements of geometry; rudiments of geography and national history; drawing and sketching of common and simple objects; singing; gymnastic and military exercises. A similar programme to be adopted for girls' schools, with the necessary modifications in gymnastic exercises, and manual instruction in the following branches to be added:

First year: Embroidery; stitching; hemming; knitting with wool and thread with wooden needles.