schoolroom and shows how to avoid the evils of emulation, and commends the system of instruction by induction instead of deduction and the importance of substituting investigation for memorizing. (104 pp.)

The tenth report, 1846, gives the history of the common-school system in Massachusetts and shows the relation which education holds to the future generations of the Commonwealth. (35 pp.)

The eleventh report, 1847, makes a strong presentation of the power of the common schools to redeem the State from social evils and crimes. There is a circular letter of inquiry with regard to the effect of education in the prevention of vice and crime. The letter of 1841 had inquired regarding the effect of education upon thrift and industry. Replies obtained to the letter of 1847 gave encouraging facts and opinions in regard to the moral effect of school education. The report continues to discuss the qualifications of teachers and the methods of securing reg ular attendance of children, and paints a picture of the effect of universal education.

Every follower of God and friend of human kind will find the only sure means of carrying forward the particular reform to which he is devoted in universal education. In whatever department of philanthropy he may be engaged, he will find that department to be only a segment of the great circle of beneficence of which universal education is the center and circumference. (80 pp.)

The twelfth and last report of Horace Mann presents anew the capacity of the common-school system to improve the pecuniary condition and elevate the intellectual, moral, and religious character of the Commonwealth, repeating with new force the arguments brought forward in previous reports. He shows the importance of religion and the reading of the Bible in the common school; shows the importance of health and the necessity of providing for physical training in the schoolroom; sets forth the necessity of the schools for the political education of the citi. zens. His devices to show the use of intelligence gained in the schools to the mechanic, the merchant, and the farmer seem inexhaustible. (120 pp.)

As a consequence of the seventh report, which sets forth the advantages of the schools of Germany, there arose the famous controversy with the 31 Boston schoolmasters.

In studying the records of Massachusetts, one is impressed by the fact that every new movement in education has run the gauntlet of fierce and bitter opposition before adoption. The ability of the conservative party has always been conspicuous, and the friends of the new measure have been forced to exert all their strength, and to eliminate one after another the objectionable features discovered in advance by their enemies. To this fact is due the success of so many of the reforms and improvements that have proceeded from this State. The fire of criticism has purified the gold from the dross in a large measure already before the stage of practical experiment has begun. In reviewing this long record of bitter quarrels over new measures that have now become

old and venerable because of their good results in all parts of the nation, we are apt to become impatient and blame too severely the conservative party in Massachusetts.

We forget that the opposition helped to perfect the theory of the reform, and did much to make it a real advance instead of a mere change from one imperfect method to another. Even at best, educational changes are often only changes of fashion-the swing of the pendulum from one extreme to another-and sure to need correction by a fresh reaction. Again, it is patent in Massachusetts history that the defects of old methods were in great part remedied by the good sense and skill of many highly cultured teachers who still practiced them, and hence the wholesale denunciation of the old methods was felt to be unjust. The best teachers resented the attack on their methods. It seemed unfair, because it charged against the method all the mistakes committed by inexperience and stupidity, and because, too, it claimed more for the new device than could be realized. The old was condemned for its poor results in the hands of the most incompetent, while the new was commended as the ideal without considering what it would become in the hands of unfaithful teachers.

Take as an instance of this the use of text-books. Everyone will admit that what is called the "slavish use" of such means is a great evil. The memorizing of words and sentences, without criticism and reflection on their meaning, is a mechanical training of the mind and fit only for parrots. But on the other hand, the proper use of the printed page is the greatest of all arts taught in the school. How to get out of printed words and sentences the original thought and observation recorded there-how to verify these and critically go over the steps of the author's mind-this is the method of discovery and leads to the only real progress. For real progress comes from availing one's self of the wisdom of the race and using it as an instrument of new discovery. That other method sometimes commended, of original investigation without aid from books, forgets that mankind has toiled for long thousands of years to construct a ladder of achievement and that civilization is on the highest round of this ladder. It has invented school education in order that its youth may climb quickly to the top on the rounds which have been added one by one, slowly, in the lapse of ages. The youth shall profit vicariously by the thought and experience of those who have gone before. For the child of the savage tribe there is no such vicarious thinking and living; he begins practically at the bottom of this ladder, with no rounds on which he may climb.

Now, there was in Massachusetts and elsewhere much excellent teaching in the academies and common schools-teaching which trained the pupil to criticise and verify instead of to accept the statements of the book with blind credulity. The good teachers knew that their methods were good and felt indignant to hear them caricatured and an inferior method recommended as a substitute.

For the merely oral method does not possess in it the capability of producing the independent scholar who can be trained by holding him responsible for mastering critically the printed page and making alive again its thoughts and perceptions. It was a sense of something valuable in the old method that was not touched by the criticisms of Horace Mann that led to the reply of the Boston masters.

Here we come to the closer view of the character of Horace Mann. He was, like so many of the great men of the Puritans, modeled on the type of the Hebrew prophets. The close and continuous study of the characters portrayed in the Old Testament, the weekly sermons, most of which were studies of those characters, had educated all Puritans. to see ideals of character in ancient leaders who devoted themselves to a cause and withstood popular clamor, fiercely denouncing whatever form of idol worship they saw among their countrymen.

The ideal of a strong, serious-minded, independent manhood, unswerved by personal interest, thoroughly patriotic, and devoted to the public interest, it draws its support from a sense of righteousness that gives it a backbone coterminous with the axis on which the universe revolves. So long as this character is recognized and respected, and has in the main the support of the community, small and great, it stands firm like an oak, and thrives on the hostility of the elements in society that it opposes.

But this species of character modeled on the Hebrew prophet, it should be said, is far more likely to be an inward tragedy than a genuine historical one. The average man puts on the air of a censor of his age or his community and develops an overweening egotism, or he poses as an unappreciated genius for poetry, or philosophy, or philan thropy, or statesmanship, or theology, or ethical purity of character.

The pathway of history for eighteen centuries is strewn with wrecked individualities of men who have become fanatics or cranks through the demoniac possession of a single idea and the self-delusion-a sugges tion of the evil one-that they are exceptionally wise and gifted above their fellow-men; that they, in short, are right and the world all wrong. It is saved from being a tragedy in Horace Mann, and in other great men before and after who have personified this Hebrew-prophet type of reformer, by the greatness of the cause they have espoused and by their self-sacrificing devotion to it.

The Great Teacher gave the one prescription to ward off the fatal disease that attacks this Hebrew individualism, and that prescription is humility and self-abasement. Its intellectual rule is the measure by service of one's fellows: Be their servant if you would rule over them. But we have from this ideal the most important fruition of all human history, namely, the development of individualism and the formation of a set of institutions to nurture it.

We have characters that are so strong that they can withstand any amount of opposition from their fellow-men and still stand erect without fear. "One with God is a majority."

Thus Horace Mann was intrenched in his fundamental principle, and on all occasions returned to it to rally his strength. In his own words he describes his conviction and at the same time lays down the details of his policy and methods of winning success:

The education of the whole people in a republican government can never be attained without the consent of the whole people. Compulsion, even if it were desirable, is not an available instrument. Enlightenment, not coercion, is our resource. The nature of education must be explained. The whole mass of mind must be instructed in regard to its comprehension and enduring interests. We can not drive our people up a dark avenue, even though it be the right one; but we must hang the starry lights of knowledge about it, and show them not only the directness of its course to the goal of prosperity and honor, but the beauty of the way that leads to it.

In some districts there will be but a single man or woman, in some towns scarcely half a dozen men or women, who have espoused this noble enterprise; but whether there be half a dozen or but one, they must be like the little leaven which a woman took and hid in three measures of meal. Let the intelligent visit the ignorant day by day, as the oculist visits the blind man and detaches the scales from his eyes, until the living sense leaps in the living light.

Let the zealous seek contact and communion with those who are frozen up in indifference, and thaw off the icebergs wherein they lie embedded. Let the love of beautiful childhood, the love of country, the dictates of reason, the admonitions of conscience, the sense of religious responsibility, be plied in mingled tenderness and earnestness until the obdurate and dark mass of avarice, ignorance, and prejudice shall be dissipated by their blended light and heat.

He preached the same doctrine regarding the right of the state to educate at public expense that James G. Carter had preached. It is stated in these simple propositions:

1. The successive generations of men, taken collectively, constitute a great commonwealth.

2. The property of the commonwealth is pledged for the education of all its youth up to such a point as will save them from poverty and vice and prepare them for adequate performance of their social and civil duties.

3. The successive holders of this property are trustees bound to the faithful execution of this trust by the most sacred obligations; and the embezzlement and pillage from children and descendants have not less of criminality, but far more than the same offenses when perpetrated against contemporaries.

The net result of Mr. Mann's labors in his great career as educational statesman is put tersely by Mr. Martin in these words:

In the evolution of the Massachusetts public schools during these twelve years of Mr. Mann's labors, statistics tell us that the appropriations for public schools had doubled; that more than $2,000,000 had been spent in providing better schoolhouses; that the wages of men as teachers had increased 62 per cent, of women 51 per cent, while the whole number of women employed as teachers had increased 54 per cent; one month had been added to the average length of the schools; the ratio of privateschool expenditures to those of the public schools had diminished from 75 per cent to 36 per cent; the compensation of school committees had been made compule their supervision was more general and more constant; three normal sch been established, and had sent out several hundred teachers, who wen themselves felt in all parts of the State.'

1 Martin's Education in Massachusetts,

In conclusion, I suggest again the thought of Mr. Mann as a character inspired with missionary zeal to reform society by means of the school system. It was this missionary zeal that led him to advocate in the Massachusetts legislature the first insane asylum and secure its establishment; to favor the establishment of asylums for deaf, dumb, and blind; to secure normal schools, humane school discipline, methods of instruction that appeal to the child's interest and arouse him to self-activity, and finally to devote the evening of his life to the Antioch College experiment.

It is this missionary zeal for the school that works so widely and in so many followers to-day. What enthusiastic teacher is not proud to be called a disciple of Horace Mann?

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Compiled by B: PICKMAN MANN.

LETTER TO THE COMMISSIONER.

1918 SUNDERLAND PLACE, Washington, D. C., 9 Dec., 1896.

DEAR SIR. I accede very gladly to your offer to publish in your annual report the material I have gathered for a bibliography of my father, Horace Mann. I regret that the work is not more complete.

I have in my possession many interesting and valuable fragments of publications on the subject, which cannot be included in this list because I do not know where or when they were published. I have also a large number of indefinite references to publications which I have not been able to see. Beyond these, I have reason to believe that much material exists of which I know nothing.

I avail myself of the opportunity afforded by this publication to ask all persons kindly disposed to acquaint me with the titles of all publications relating to Horace Mann, not mentioned in this list, that I may further complete the work. I would like to receive definite references, and to know where the publications can be found. I would like also to obtain copies where such can be had.

Yours respectfully,

Hon. Wм. T. HARRIS, LL. D.,

U. S. Commissioner of Education.

B: PICKMAN MANN.

Mann, Horace. An oration delivered at Providence, September 6, 1825. Before the United brother's society of Brown university. Providence: 1825. 30 p., O.

Mann, Horace. Amendment of the constitution. Boston commercial, 24 June 1832.)

Mann, Horace. License laws. (Columbian centinel [Boston, Mass.], 4 Feb. 1832, no. 4989, p. 4, col. 4-5; p. 2, col. 4-6; 8 Feb. 1832, no. 4990, p. 1, col. 1-2.) Editorial notice. (op. cit., 8 Feb., p. 2, col. 1.)

Mann, Horace. Capital punishment. (Columbian centinel, 7 Mar. 1832, no. 4998, p. 4, col. 6.)