The order is well represented in Britain-among others | his trial, dedicated to the king. In December 1740 he writes to by Nasturtium (N. officinale, water-cress), Arabis (rock-cress), Sir H. Sloane saying he has been employed since July as Latin Cardamine (bitter-cress), Sisymbrium (hedge mustard, &c.; usher in a boarding-school at Enfield. He then found work as S. Irio is London rocket, a proof-reader, and several editions of Greek and Latin classics so-called because it sprang are said to have owed their accuracy to his care. He superup after the fire of 1666), intended the printing of one of Matthew Henry's commentaries, Brassica (cabbage and mus- and in 1750 printed a small Compendium of the Holy Bible (an tard), Diplotaxis (rocket), abstract of the contents of each chapter), and also reprinted a Cochlearia (scurvy-grass), larger edition of the Concordance. Capsella (shepherd's purse), Lepidium (cress), Thlaspi (penny-cress), Cakile (sea rocket), Raphanus (radish), and others. Of economic importance are species of Brassica, including mustard (B. nigra), white mustard, used when young in salads (B. alba), cabbage (q.v.) and its numerous forms derived from B. oleracea, turnip (B. campestris), and swede (B. Napus), Raphanus sativus (radish), Cochlearia Armoracia (horse-radish), Nasturtium officinale (watercress), Lepidium sativum (garden cress). Isatis affords a blue dye, woad. Many of the genera are known as ornamental garden plants; such are Cheiranthus (wallflower), Matthiola (stock), Iberis (candy-tuft), Alyssum (Alison), Hesperis (dame's violet), Lunaria (honesty) (fig. 6), Aubrietia and others.

FIG. 6. Honesty (Lunaria biennis), showing Flower and Fruit. Reduced.

About this time he adopted the title of "Alexander the Corrector," and assumed the office of correcting the morals of the nation, especially with regard to swearing and Sunday observance. For this office he believed himself divinely commissioned, but he petitioned parliament for a formal appointment in this capacity. In April 1755 he printed a letter to the speaker and other members of the House of Commons, and about the same time an "Address to the King and Parliament." He was in the habit of carrying a sponge, with which he effaced all inscriptions which he thought contrary to good morals. In September 1753, through being involved in a street brawl, he was confined in an asylum in Chelsea for seventeen days at the instance of his sister, Mrs Wild. He brought an unsuccessful action against his friends, and seriously proposed that they should go into confinement as an atonement. He published an account of this second restraint in "The Adventures of Alexander the Corrector." He made attempts to present to the king in person an account of his trial, and to obtain the honour of knighthood, one of his predicted honours. In 1754 he was nominated as parliamentary candidate for the city of London, but did not go to the poll. In 1755 he paid unwelcome addresses to the daughter of Sir Thomas Abney, of Newington (1640–1722), and then published his letters and the history of his repulse in the third part of his "Adventures." In June and July 1755 CRUDEN, ALEXANDER (1701-1770), author of the well-known he visited Oxford and Cambridge. He was treated with the concordance (q.v.) to the English Bible, was born at Aberdeen respect due to his learning by officials and residents in both on the 31st of May 1701. He was educated at the grammar universities, but experienced some boisterous fooling at the school, Aberdeen, and studied at Marischal College, intending hands of the undergraduates. At Cambridge he was knighted to enter the ministry. He took the degree of master of arts, but with mock ceremonies. There he appointed deputy corsoon after began to show signs of insanity owing to a disappoint-rectors" to represent him in the university. He also visited ment in love. After a term of confinement he recovered and removed to London. In 1722 he had an engagement as private tutor to the son of a country squire living at Eton Hall, Southgate, and also held a similar post at Ware. Years afterwards, in an application for the title of bookseller to the queen, he stated that he had been for some years corrector for the press in Wild Court. This probably refers to this time. In 1729 he was employed by the 10th earl of Derby as a reader and secretary, but was discharged on the 7th of July for his ignorance of French pronunciation. He then lodged in a house in Soho frequented exclusively by Frenchmen, and took lessons in the language in the hope of getting back his post with the earl, but when he went to Knowsley in Lancashire, the earl would not see him. He returned to London and opened a bookseller's shop in the Royal Exchange. In April 1735 he obtained the title of bookseller to the queen by recommendation of the lord mayor and most of the Whig aldermen. The post was an unremunerative sinecure. In 1737 he finished his concordance, which, he says, was the work of several years. It was presented to the queen on the 3rd of November 1737, a fortnight before her death.

Although Cruden's biblical labours have made his name a household word among English-speaking people, he was disappointed in his hopes of immediate profit, and his mind again became unhinged. In spite of his earnest and self-denying piety, and his exceptional intellectual powers, he developed idiosyncrasies, and his life was marred by a harmless but ridiculous egotism, which so nearly bordered on insanity that his friends sometimes thought it necessary to have him confined. He paid unwelcome addresses to a widow, and was confined in a madhouse in Bethnal Green. On his release he published a pamphlet dedicated to Lord H. (probably Harrington, secretary of state) entitled The London Citizen exceedingly injured, or a British Inquisition Displayed. He also published an account of

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Eton, Windsor, Tonbridge and Westminster schools, where he appointed four boys to be his deputies. (An Admonition to Cambridge is preserved among letters from J. Neville of Emmanuel to Dr Cox Macro, in the British Museum.) The Corrector's Earnest Address to the Inhabitants of Great Britain, published in 1756, was occasioned by the earthquake at Lisbon. In 1762 he saved an ignorant seaman, Richard Potter, from the gallows, and in 1763 published a pamphlet recording the history of the case. Against John Wilkes, whom he hated, he wrote a small pamphlet, and used to delete with his sponge the number 45 wherever he found it, this being the offensive number of the North Briton. In 1769 he lectured in Aberdeen as "Corrector," and distributed copies of the fourth commandment and various religious tracts. The wit that made his eccentricities palatable is

illustrated by the story of how he gave to a conceited young minister whose appearance displeased him A Mother's Catechism dedicated to the young and ignorant. The Scripture Dictionary, compiled about this time, was printed in Aberdeen in two volumes shortly after his death. Alexander Chalmers, who in his boyhood heard Cruden lecture in Aberdeen and wrote his biography, says that a verbal index to Milton, which accompanied the edition of Thomas Newton, bishop of Bristol, in 1769, was Cruden's.

The second edition of the Bible Concordance was published in 1761, and presented to the king in person on the 21st of December. The third appeared in 1769. Both contain a pleasing portrait of the author. He is said to have gained £800 by these two editions. He returned to London from Aberdeen, and died suddenly while praying in his lodgings in Camden Passage, Islington, on the 1st of November 1770. He was buried in the ground of a Protestant dissenting congregation in Dead Man's Place, Southwark. He bequeathed a portion of his savings for a £5 bursary at Aberdeen, which preserves his name on the list of benefactors of the university. (D. MN.)

CRUDEN, a village and parish on the E. coast of Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Pop. of parish (1901) 3444. It is situated at the head of Cruden Bay, 29 m. N.N.E. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland railway company's branch line from Ellon to Boddam. The golf-course of 18 holes is one of the best in Scotland, and there is a sandy beach, with good bathing. There is some good fishing at Port Erroll, also called Ward of Cruden. Prehistoric remains have been found in the parish, and near Ardendraught, not far from the shore, Malcolm II. is said to have defeated Canute in 1014. The Water of Cruden, which rises a few miles to the west, flows through the village into the North Sea. Slains Castle, a seat of the earl of Erroll, lies to the north of Cruden, but must not be confounded with the old castle of Slains, about 5 m. to the south-west, near the point where, according to tradition, the "St Catherine" of the Spanish Armada foundered in 1588. The Bullers of Buchan are within 2 m. walk of Cruden.

CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualté, mod. cruauté, from the Lat. crudelitas), the intentional infliction of pain or suffering. It is only necessary to deal here with the legal relations involved. Statutory provision for the prevention of cruelty to those who are unable to protect themselves has been particularly marked in the 19th century. The increase of legislation for the protection of children, lunatics and animals is a proof of the growing humanitarianism of the age. There was at one time a tendency among jurists to question whether, for instance, the prevention of cruelty to animals was not a recognition of a certain quasiright in animals, or whether it was merely that such exhibitions as bull- and bear-baiting, cock-fights, &c., were demoralizing to the public generally. The true fact seems to be that the first introduction of such legislation was undoubtedly due to the desire for the promotion of humanity, but that the principle, for the recognition of which the time was not yet ripe, had to be excused in the eyes of the public by the plea that cruelty had a demoralizing effect upon spectators (see A. V. Dicey, Law | and Opinion in England, p. 188; T. E. Holland, Jurisprudence, 10th ed., p. 372).

as a dangerous dog and must be kept under proper control or be destroyed. The Drugging of Animals Act 1876 imposes a penalty on giving poisonous drugs to any domestic animal unlawfully. The Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 was passed for the purpose of regulating the practice of vivisection (q.v.). The Ground Game Act 1880, prohibits night shooting, or the use of spring traps above ground or poison. The Injured Animals Act 1907 enables police constables to cause any animal when mortally or seriously injured to be slaughtered. The Diseases of Animals Act 1894 and orders under it are for the purpose of securing animals from unnecessary suffering, as well as from disease. Finally, the Wild Birds Protection Acts 1880 to 1904, with various game acts (see GAME LAWS), extend the protection of the law to wild birds. The acts establish a close time for wild birds and impose penalties for shooting or taking them within that time; prohibit the exposing or offering for sale within certain dates any wild bird recently killed or taken unless bought or received from some person residing out of the United Kingdom; the taking or destroying of wild birds' eggs, the setting of pole traps, and the taking of a wild bird by means of a hook or other similar instrument.

For the law relating to the prevention of cruelty to children see CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; for cruelty in the sense of such conduct as entitles a husband or wife to judicial separation see DIVORCE. (T. A. I.)

CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE (1792-1878), English artist, caricaturist and illustrator, was born in London on the 27th of September 1792. By natural disposition and collateral circumstances he may be accepted as the type of the born humoristic artist predestined for this special form of art. His grandfather had taken up the arts, and his father, Isaac Cruikshank, followed the painter's profession. Amidst these surroundings the children were born and brought up, their first playthings the materials of the arts their father practised. George followed the family traditions with amazing facility, easily surpassing his compeers as an etcher. When the father died, about 1811, George, still in his teens, was already a successful and popular artist. All his acquisitions were native gifts, and of home-growth; outside training, or the serious apprenticeship to art, were dispensed with, under the necessity of working for immediate profit. This lack of academic training the artist at times found cause to regret, and at some intervals he made exertions to cultivate the knowledge obtainable by studying from the antique and drawing from life at the schools. From boyhood he was accustomed to turn his artistic talents to ready account, disposing of designs and etchings to the printsellers, and helping his father in forwarding his plates. Before he was twenty his spirited style and talent had secured popular recognition; the contemporary of Gillray, Rowlandson, Alken, Heath, Dighton, and the estab

Cruelty to Animals.--The English common law has never taken cognizance of the commission of acts of cruelty upon animals, and direct legislation upon the subject, dating from the 19th century, was due in a great measure to public agitation, supported by the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (founded in 1824). Various acts were passed in 1822 (known as Martin's Act), 1835 and 1837, and these were amended and consolidated by the Cruelty to Animals Acts 1849 and 1854, which, with the Wild Animals in Captivity Protection Act 1900, are the main acts upon the subject. There are also, in addition, many other acts that impose certain liabilities in respect of animals and indirectly prevent cruelty. The Cruelty to Animals Acts 1849 and 1854 render liable to prosecution and fine prac-lished caricaturists of that generation, he developed great protically any act of cruelty to an animal; such acts as dubbing a cock, cropping the ears of a dog or dishorning cattle, are offences. The latter practice, however, is allowed both in Scotland and Ireland, the courts having held that the advantages to be obtained from dishorning outweigh the pain caused by the operation. The word "animal" is defined as meaning any domestic animal" of whatever kind or species, and whether a quadruped or not. The act of 1849 also forbids bull- and bearbaiting, or fighting between any kinds of animals; requires the provision of food and water to animals impounded; lays down regulations as to the treatment of animals sent for slaughter, and imposes a penalty for improperly conveying animals. The Wild Animals in Captivity Protection Act 1900 extends to wild animals in captivity that protection which the acts of 1849 and 1854 conferred on domestic animals, making exception of any act done or any omission in the preparation of animals for the food of man or for sport. The word "animal" in the act includes bird, beast, fish or reptile. The Dogs Act 1865 rendered owners of dogs liable for injuries to cattle and A vast number of Cruikshank's spirited cartoons were pubsheep; the Dogs Act 1906 extended the owner's liability for lished as separate caricatures, all coloured by hand; others injury done to any cattle by a dog, and further, where a dog formed series, or were contributed to satirical magazines, the is proved to have injured cattle or chased sheep it may be treated | Satirist, Town Talk, The Scourge (1811-1816) and the like

ficiency as an etcher. Gillray's matured and trained skill had some influence upon his executive powers, and when the older caricaturist passed away in 1815, George Cruikshank had already taken his place as a satirist. Prolific and dexterous beyond his competitors, for a generation he delineated Tories, Whigs and Radicals with fine impartiality. Satirical capital came to him from every public event,―wars abroad, the enemies of England (for he was always fervidly patriotic), the camp, the court, the senate, the Church; low life, high life; the humours of the people, the follies of the great. In this wonderful gallery the student may grasp the popular side of most questions which for the time being engaged public attention. George Cruikshank's technical and manipulative skill as an etcher was such that Ruskin and the best judges have placed his productions in the foremost rank; in this respect his works have been compared favourably with the masterpieces of etching. He died at 263 Hampstead Road on the 1st of February 1878. His remains rest in St Paul's cathedral.

ephemeral publications. In conjunction with William Hone's | must be interpreted by the ideas of an age which was dominated scathing tracts, G. Cruikshank produced political satires to by the spirit of otherworldliness, and accordingly ruled by the illustrate the series of facetiae and miscellanies, like The Political | clerical power which represented the other world. They are a House that Jack Built (1819).

novum salutis genus-a new path to Heaven, to tread which Of a more genially humoristic order are his well-known book counted" for full and complete satisfaction" pro omni poenitentia illustrations, now so deservedly esteemed for their inimitable fun and gave "forgiveness of sins" (peccaminum remissio)1; they and frolic, among other qualities, such as the weird and terrible, are, again, the "foreign policy" of the papacy, directing its in which he excelled. Early in this series came The Humorist faithful subjects to the great war of Christianity against the (1819-1821) and Life in Paris (1822). The well-known series of | infidel. As such a novum salutis genus, the Crusades connect Life in London, conjointly produced by the brothers I. R. and themselves with the history of the penitentiary system; as the G. Cruikshank, has enjoyed a prolonged reputation, and is still foreign policy of the Church they belong to that clerical purificasought after by collectors. Grimm's Collection of German Popular tion and direction of feudal society and its instincts, which Stories (1824-1826), in two series, with 22 inimitable etchings, appears in the institution of "God's Truce" and in chivalry are in themselves sufficient to account for G. Cruikshank's itself. The penitentiary system, according to which the priest reputation. To the first fourteen volumes (1837-1843) of enforced a code of moral law in the confessional by the sanction Bentley's Miscellany Cruikshank contributed 126 of his best of penance-penance which must be performed as a condition plates, etched on steel, including the famous illustrations to of admission to the sacrament of the Eucharist-had been Oliver Twist, Jack Sheppard, Guy Fawkes and The Ingoldsby from early times a great instrument in the civilization of the Legends. For W. Harrison Ainsworth, Cruikshank illustrated raw Germanic races. Penance might consist in fasting; it Rookwood (1836) and The Tower of London (1840); the first six might consist in flagellation; it might consist in pilgrimage. volumes of Ainsworth's Magazine (1842-1844) were illustrated The penitentiary pilgrimage, which seems to have been practised by him with several of his finest suites of etchings. For C. as early as A.D. 700, was twice blessed; not only was it an act Lever's Arthur O'Leary he supplied 10 full-page etchings of atonement in itself, like fasting and flagellation; it also gained (1844), and 20 spirited graphic etchings for Maxwell's lurid for the pilgrim the merit of having stood on holy ground. Under History of the Irish Rebellion in 1798 (1845). Of his own the influence of the Cluniac revival, which began in the 10th speculations, mention must be made of George Cruikshank's century, pilgrimages became increasingly frequent; and the Omnibus (1841) and George Cruikshank's Table Book (1845), goal of pilgrimage was often Jerusalem. Pilgrims who were as well as his Comic Almanack (1835-1853). The Life of Sir travelling to Jerusalem joined themselves in companies for John Falstaff contained 20 full-page etchings (1857-1858). security, and marched under arms; the pilgrims of 1064, who These are a few leading items amongst the thousands of illus- were headed by the archbishop of Mainz, numbered some trations emanating from that fertile imagination. As an enthusi- 7000 men. When the First Crusade finally came, what was astic teetotal advocate, G. Cruikshank produced a long series of it but a penitentiary pilgrimage under arms-with the one pictures and illustrations, pictorial pamphlets and tracts; the additional object of conquering the goal of pilgrimage? That best known of these are The Bottle, 8 plates (1847), with its the Pilgrims' Progress should thus have turned into a Holy War sequel, The Drunkard's Children, 8 plates (1848), with the is a fact readily explicable, when we turn to consider the attempts ambitious work, The Worship of Bacchus, published by sub-made by the Church, during the 11th century, to purify, or at scription after the artist's oil painting, now in the National Gallery, London, to which it was presented by his numerous admirers.

See Cruikshank's Water-Colours, with introduction by Joseph Grego (London, 1903). (J. Go.*) CRUNDEN, JOHN (d. 1828), English architectural and mobiliary designer. Most of his early inspiration was drawn from Chippendale and his school, but he fell later under the influence of a bastard classicism. He produced a very large number of designs which were published in numerous volumes; among the most ambitious were ornamental centres for ceilings in which he introduced cupids with bows and arrows, Fame sounding her trumpet, and such like motives. Sport and natural history supplied him with many other themes, and one of his ceilings is a hunting scene representing a "kill." His principal works were Designs for Ceilings; Convenient and Ornamental Architecture; The Carpenter's Companion for Chinese Railings, Gates, &c. (1770); The Joiner and Cabinet-maker's Darling, or Sixty Designs for Gothic, Chinese, Mosaic and Ornamental Frets (1765); and The Chimney Piece Maker's Daily Assistant (1776). Much of his work was either absurd or valueless.

CRUSADES, the name given to the series of wars for delivering the Holy Land from the Mahommedans, so-called from the cross worn as a badge by the crusaders. By analogy the term "crusade" is also given to any campaign undertaken in the same spirit.

1. The Meaning of the Crusades.-The Crusades may be regarded partly as the decumanus fluctus in the surge of religious revival, which had begun in western Europe during the 10th, and had mounted high during the 11th century; partly as a chapter, and a most important chapter, in the history of the interaction of East and West. Contemporaries regarded them in the former of these two aspects, as "holy wars and "pil'grims' progresses " towards Christ's Sepulchre; the reflective eye of history must perhaps regard them more exclusively from the latter point of view. Considered as holy wars the Crusades

any rate to direct, the feudal instinct for private war (Fehde). Since the close of the 10th century diocesan councils in France had been busily acting as legislatures, and enacting “forms of peace" for the maintenance of God's Peace or Truce (Pax Dei or Treuga Dei). In each diocese there had arisen a judicature (judices pacis) to decide when the form had been broken; and an executive, or communitas pacis, had been formed to enforce the decisions of the judicature. But it was an easier thing to consecrate the fighting instinct than to curb it; and the institution of chivalry represents such a clerical consecration, for ideal ends and noble purposes, of the martial impulses which the Church had hitherto endeavoured to check. In the same way the Crusades themselves may be regarded as a stage in the clerical reformation of the fighting laymen. As chivalry directed the layman to defend what was right, so the preaching of the Crusades directed him to attack what was wrong—the possession by "infidels " of the Sepulchre of Christ. The Crusades are the offensive side of chivalry: chivalry is their parent—as it is also their child. The knight who joined the Crusades might thus still indulge the bellicose side of his genius-under the aegis and at the bidding of the Church; and in so doing he would also attain what the spiritual side of his nature ardently soughta perfect salvation and remission of sins. He might butcher all day, till he waded ankle-deep in blood, and then at nightfall kneel, sobbing for very joy, at the altar of the Sepulchre-for was he not red from the winepress of the Lord? One can readily understand the popularity of the Crusades, when one reflects that they permitted men to get to the other world by fighting hard on earth, and allowed them to gain the fruits of asceticism by the ways of hedonism. Nor was the Church merely able, through the Crusades, to direct the martial instincts of

'Fulcher of Chartres, I, i. For what follows, with regard to the Church's conversion of guerra into the Holy War, cf. especially the passage" Procedant contra infideles ad pugnam jam incipi dignam qui abusive privatum certamen contra fideles consuescebant distendere quondam."

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merit must have been a great motive; it is also true, as the records of crusading sermons show, that there was a strong element of "revivalism" in the Crusades, and that thousands were hurried into taking the cross by a gust of that uncontrollable enthusiasm which is excited by revivalist meetings to-day. But it must also be admitted that there were motives of this world to attract the masses to the Crusades. Famine and pestilence at home drove men to emigrate hopefully to the golden East. In 1994 there was pestilence from Flanders to Bohemia: in 1095 there was famine in Lorraine. Francigenis occidentalibus facile persuaderi poterat sua rura relinquere; nam Gallias per annos aliquot nunc seditio civilis, nunc fames, nunc mortalitas nimis afflixerat.2 No wonder that a stream of emigration set towards the East, such as would in modern times flow towards a newly discovered gold-field-a stream carrying in its turbid waters much refuse, tramps and bankrupts, camp-followers and hucksters, fugitive monks and escaped villeins, and marked by the same motley grouping, the same fever of life, the same alternations of affluence and beggary, which mark the rush for a gold-field to-day.

Asia Minor for the Eastern empire, in return for a union of the | It is indeed true that to thousands the hope of acquiring spiritual Eastern with the Western Church. In 1074 Gregory actually assembled a considerable army; but his disagreement with Robert Guiscard, followed by the outbreak of the war of investitures, hindered the realization of his plans, and the only result was a precedent and a suggestion for the events of 1095. The appeal of Michael VII. was re-echoed by Alexius Comnenus himself. Brave and sage as he was, he could hardly cope at one and the same time with the hostility of the Normans on the west, of the Petchenegs (Patzinaks) on the north, and of the Seljuks on the east and south. Already in 1087 and 1088 he had appealed to Baldwin of Flanders, verbally and by letter,' for troops; and Baldwin had answered the appeal. The same appeal was made, more than once, to Urban II.; and the answer was the First Crusade. The First Crusade was not, indeed, what Alexius had asked or expected to receive. He had appealed for reinforcements to recover Asia Minor; he received hundreds of thousands of troops, independent of him, and intending to conquer Jerusalem for themselves, though they might incidentally recover Asia Minor for the Eastern empire on their way. Alexius may almost be compared to a magician, who has uttered a charm to summon a ministering spirit, and is surrounded on the instant by legions of demons. In truth the appeal of Alexius had set free forces in the West which were independent of, and even ultimately hostile to, the interests of the Eastern empire.

The primary force, which thus transmuted an appeal for reinforcements into a holy war for the conquest of Palestine, Iwas the Church. The creative thought of the middle ages is clerical thought. It is the Church which creates the Carolingian empire, because the clergy thinks in terms of empire. It is the Church which creates the First Crusade, because the clergy believes in penitentiary pilgrimages, and the war against the Seljuks can be turned into a pilgrimage to the Sepulchre; because, again, it wishes to direct the fighting instinct of the laity, and the consecrating name of Jerusalem provides an unimpeachable channel; above all, because the papacy desires a perfect and universal Church, and a perfect and universal Church must rule in the Holy Land. But it would be a mistake to regard the Crusades (as it would be a mistake to regard the Carolingian empire) as a pure creation of the Church, or as merely due to the policy of a theocracy directing men to the holy war which is the only war possible for a theocracy. It would be almost truer, though only half the truth, to say that the clergy gave the name of Crusade to sanctify interests and ambitions which, while set on other ends than those of the Church, happened to coincide in their choice of means. There was, for instance, the ambition of the adventurer prince, the younger son, eager to carve a principality in the far East, of whom Bohemund is the type; there was the interest of Italian towns, anxious to acquire the products of the East more directly and cheaply, by erecting their own emporia in the eastern Mediterranean. The former was the driving force which made the First Crusade successful, where later Crusades, without its stimulus, for the most part failed; the latter was the one staunch ally which alone enabled Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. to create the kingdom of Jerusalem. So far as the Crusades led to permanent material results in the East, they did so in virtue of these two forces. Unregulated enthusiasm might of itself have achieved little or nothing; enthusiasm caught and guided by the astute Norman, and the no less astute Venetian or Genoese, could not but achieve tangible results. The principality or the emporium, it is true, would supply motives to the prince and the merchant only; and it may be urged that to the mass of the crusaders the religious motive was all in all. In this way we may return to the view that the First Crusade, at any rate, was un fait ecclésiastique. 1 The comte de Riant impugned the authenticity of Alexius' letter to the count of Flanders. It is very probable that the versions of this letter which we possess, and which are to be found only in later writings like Guibert de Nogent, are apocryphal; Alexius can hardly have held out the bait of the beauty of Greek women, or have written that he preferred to fall under the yoke of the Latins rather than that of the Turks. But it is also probable that these apocryphal versions are based on a genuine original.

...

Such were the forces set in movement by Urban II., when, after holding a synod at Piacenza (March, 1095), and receiving there fresh appeals from Alexius, he moved to Clermont, in the S.E. of France, and there on the 26th of November delivered the great speech which was followed by the First Crusade. In this speech he appealed, indeed, for help for the Greeks, auxilio saepe acclamato indigis (Fulcher i. c. i.); but the gist of his speech was the need of Jerusalem. Let the truce of God be observed at home; and let the arms of Christians be directed to the winning of Jerusalem in an expedition which should count for full and complete penance. Like Gregory, Urban had thus sought for aid for the Eastern empire; unlike Gregory, who had only mentioned the Holy Sepulchre in a single letter, and then casually, he had struck the note of Jerusalem. The instant cries of Deus vult which answered the note showed that Urban had struck aright. Thousands at once took the cross; the first was Bishop Adhemar of Puy, whom Urban named his legate and made leader of the First Crusade (for the holy war, according to Urban's original conception, must needs be led by a clerk). Fixing the 15th of August 1096 as the time for the departure of the crusaders, and Constantinople as the general rendezvous, Urban returned from France to Italy. It is noticeable that it was on French soil that the seed had been sown.3 Preached on French soil by a pope of French descent, the Crusades began-and they continued as essentially a French (or perhaps better Norman-French) enterprise; and the kingdom which they established in the East was essentially a French kingdom, in its speech and its customs, its virtues and its vices. It was natural that France should be the home of the Crusades. She was already the home of the Cluniac movement, the centre from which radiated the truce of God, the chosen place of chivalry; she could supply a host of feudal nobles, somewhat loosely tied to their place in society, and ready to break loose for a great enterprise; she had suffered from battle and murder, pestilence and famine, from which any escape was welcome. To the Normans particularly the Crusades had an intimate appeal. They appealed to the old Norse instinct for wanderingan instinct which, as it had long before sent the Norseman eastward to find his El Dorado of Micklegarth, could now find a natural outlet in the expedition to Jerusalem: they appealed to the Norman religiosity, which had made them a people of pilgrims, the allies of the papacy, and, in England and Sicily, crusaders before the Crusades: finally, they appealed to that desire to gain fresh territory, upon which Malaterra remarks as characteristic of Norman princes. No wonder, then, that 2 Ekkehard, Chronica, p. 213.

The Chanson de Roland, which cannot be posterior to the First Crusade for the poem never alludes to it already contains the idea of the Holy War against Islam. The idea of the crusade had thus already ripened in French poetry, before Urban preached his sermon.

Book i. c. iii. (in Muratori, S.R.I., v. 550).