next six years to literary work. In 1756 he became one of the founders and drew up the statutes of the Arcadia Lusitana, a literary society whose aims were the instruction of its members, the cultivation of the art of poetry, and the restoration of good taste. The fault was not his if these ends were not attained, for, taking contemporary French authors as his models, he contributed much, both in prose and verse, to its proceedings, until he left in February 1760 to take up the position of juiz de fora at Castello de Vide. On returning to Lisbon for a short visit, he found the Arcadia a prey to the internal dissensions that caused its dissolution in 1774, but succeeded in composing them, and in 1764 he went to Elvas to act as auditor of one of the regiments stationed there. During a ten years' residence, his wide reading and witty conversation gained him the friendship of the governor of that fortress and the admiration of a circle comprising all that was cultivated in Elvas. As in most cathedral and garrison towns, the clerical and military elements dominated society, and here were mutually antagonistic, because of the enmity between their respective leaders, the bishop and the governor. Moreover, Elvas, being a remote provincial centre, abounded in curious and grotesque types. Diniz, who was a keen observer, noted these, and, treasuring them in his memory, reproduced them, with their vanities, intrigues and ignorance, in his masterpiece, Hyssope. In 1768 a quarrel arose between the bishop, a proud, pretentious prelate, and the dean, as to the right of the former to receive holy water from the latter at a private side door of the cathedral, instead of at the principal | entrance. The matter being one of principle, neither party would yield what he considered his rights, and it led to a lawsuit, and divided the town into two sections, which eagerly debated the arguments on both sides and enjoyed the ridiculous incidents which accompanied the dispute. Ultimately the dean died, and was succeeded by his nephew, who appealed to the crown with success and the bishop lost his pretension. The Hyssope arose out of and deals with this affair. It was dictated in seventeen days, in the years 1770-1772, and, in its final redaction, consists of eight cantos of blank verse. The pressure of absolutism left open only one form of expression, satire, and in this poem Diniz produced an original work which ridicules the clergy and the prevailing Gallomania, and contains episodes full of humour. It has been compared with Boileau's Lutrin, because both are founded on a petty ecclesiastical quarrel, but here the resemblance ends, and the poem of Diniz is the superior in everything except metrification.

Returning to Lisbon in 1774, Diniz endeavoured once more to resuscitate the Arcadia, but his long absence had withdrawn its chief support, its most talented members Garção (q.v.) and Quita were no more, and he only assisted at its demise. In April 1776 he was appointed disembargador of the court of Relação in Rio de Janeiro and given the habit of Aviz. He lived in Brazil, devoting his leisure to a study of its natural history and mineralogy, until 1789, when he went back to Lisbon to take up the post of disembargador of the Relação of Oporto; in July 1790 he was promoted, and became disembargador of the Casa da Supplicação. In this year he was sent again to Brazil to assist in trying the leaders of the Republican conspiracy in Minas, in which Gonzaga (q.v.) and other men of letters were involved, and in December 1792 he became chancellor of the Relação in Rio. Six years later he was named councillor of the Conselho Ultramarino, but did not live to return home, dying in Rio on the 5th of October 1799.

Diniz possessed a poetic temperament, but his love of imitating the classics, whose spirit he failed to understand, fettered his muse, and he seems never to have perceived that mythological comparisons and pastoral allegories were poor substitutes for the expression of natural feeling. The conventionalism of his art prejudiced its sincerity, and, inwardly cherishing the belief that poetry was unworthy of the dignity of a judge, he never gave his real talents a chance to display themselves. His Anacreontic odes, dithyrambs and idylls earned the admiration of contemporaries, but his Pindaric odes lack fire, his sonnets are weak, and his idylls have neither the truth nor the simplicity of Quita's

work. As a rule Diniz's versification is weak and his verses lack harmony, though the diction is beyond cavil.

His poems were published in 6 vols. (Lisbon, 1807-1817). The best edition of Hyssope, to which Diniz owes his lasting fame, is that of J. R. Coelho (Lisbon, 1879), with an exhaustive introductory study on his life and writings. A French prose version of the poem by Boissonade has gone through two editions (Paris, 1828 and 1867), and English translations of selections have been printed in the Foreign Quarterly Review, and in the Manchester Quarterly (April | 1896). See also Dr Theophilo Braga, A. Arcadia Lusitana (Oporto, 1899). (E. PR.)

CRYOLITE, a mineral discovered in Greenland by the Danes in 1794, and found to be a compound of fluorine, sodium and aluminium. From its general appearance, and from the fact that it melts readily, even in a candle-flame, it was regarded by the Eskimos as a peculiar kind of ice; from this fact it acquired the name of cryolite (from Gr. κpúos, frost, and Xilos, stone). Cryolite occurs in colourless or snow-white cleavable masses, often tinted brown or red with iron oxide, and occasionally passing into a black variety. It is usually translucent, becoming nearly transparent on immersion in water. The mineral cleaves in three rectangular directions, and the crystals occasionally found in the crevices have a cubic habit, but it has been proved, after much discussion, that they belong to the anorthic system. The hardness is 2.5, and the specific gravity 3. Cryolite has the formula Na,AlF6, or 3NaF AlF3, corresponding to fluorine 54'4, sodium 32.8, and aluminium 12.8%. It colours a flame yellow, through the presence of sodium, and when heated with sulphuric acid it evolves hydrofluoric acid.

Cryolite occurs almost exclusively at Ivigtut (sometimes written Evigtok) on the Arksut Fjord in S.W. Greenland. There it forms a large deposit, in a granitic vein running through gneiss, and is accompanied by quartz, siderite, galena, blende, chalcopyrite, &c. It is also associated with a group of kindred minerals, some of which are evidently products of alteration of the cryolite, known as pachnolite, thomsenolite, ralstonite, gearksutite, arksutite, &c. Cryolite likewise occurs, though only to a limited extent, at Miyask, in the Ilmen Mountains; at Pike's Peak, Colorado, and in the Yellowstone Park.

Cryolite is a mineral of much economic importance. It has been extensively used as a source of metallic aluminium, and as a flux in smelting the metal. It is largely employed in the manufacture of certain sodium salts, as suggested by Julius Thomsen, of Copenhagen, in 1849; and it has been used for the production of certain kinds of porcelain and glass, remarkable for its toughness, and for enamelled ware.

Although cryolite is known as ice-stone (Eisstein), it is not to be confused with "ice-spar" (Eisspath), which is a vitreous kind of felspar termed " glassy felspar" or rhyacolite. (F. W. R.*)

CRYPT (Lat. crypta, from the Gr. KрUTTE, to hide), a vault or subterranean chamber, especially under churches. In classical phraseology "crypta " was employed for any vaulted building, either partially or entirely below the level of the ground. It is used for a sewer (crypta Suburae, Juvenal, Sat. v. 106); for the carceres,' or vaulted stalls for the horses and chariots in a circus (Sidon. Apoll. Carm. xxiii. 319); for the close porticoes or arcades, more fully known as cryptoporticus," attached by the Romans to their suburban villas for the sake of coolness, and to the theatres as places of exercise or rehearsal for the performers (Plin. Epist. ii. 15, v. 6, vii. 21; Sueton. Calig. 58; Sidon. Apoll. lib. ii. epist. 2); and for underground receptacles for agricultural produce (Vitruv. vi. 8, Varro, De re rust. i. 57). Tunnels, or galleries excavated in the living rock, were also called cryptae. Thus the tunnel to the north of Naples, through which the road passes to Puteoli, familiar to tourists as the "Grotto of Posilipo," was originally designated crypta Neapolitana (Seneca, Epist. 57). In early Christian times crypta was appropriately employed for the galleries of a catacomb, or for the catacomb itself. Jerome calls them by this name when describing his visits to them as a schoolboy, and the term is used by Prudentius (see CATACOMBS).

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A crypt, as a portion of a church, had its origin in the subter- present choir was built at the end of the 14th century, and its ranean chapels known as confessiones," erected around the existence forgotten till its disinterment after the fire of 1829. tomb of a martyr, or the place of his martyrdom. This is the The choir and presbytery at Rochester are supported by an origin of the spacious crypts, some of which may be called extensive crypt, of which the western portion is Gundulf's work subterranean churches, of the Roman churches of S. Prisca, (1076-1107), but the eastern part, which displays slender S. Prassede, S. Martino ai Monti, S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, and cylindrical and octagonal shafts, with light vaulting springing above all of St Peter's-the crypt being thus the germ of the from them, is of the same period as the superstructure, the first church or basilica subsequently erected above the hallowed spot. years of the 13th century. This crypt, and that beneath the When the martyr's tomb was sunk in the surface of the ground, | Early English Lady chapel at Hereford, are the latest English and not placed in a catacomb chapel, the original memorial- existing cathedral crypts. That at Hereford was rendered shrine would be only partially below the surface, and conse- necessary by the fall of the ground, and is an exceptional case. quently the part of the church erected over it, which was always Later than any of these crypts was that of St Paul's, London. that containing the altar, would be elevated some height above This was a really large and magnificent church of Decorated the ground, and be approached by flights of steps. This fashion date, with a vaulted roof of rich and intricate character resting of raising the chancel or altar end of a church on a crypt was on a forest of clustered columns. Part of it served as the parish widely imitated long after the reason for adopting it ceased, church of St Faith. A still more exquisite work of the Decorated and even where it never existed. The crypt under the altar period is the crypt of St Stephen's chapel at Westminster, than at the basilica of St Maria Maggiore in Rome is merely imita- which it is difficult to conceive anything more perfect in design tive, and the same may be said of many of the crypts of the or more elaborate in ornamentation. Having happily escaped early churches in England. The original Saxon cathedral of the conflagration of the Houses of Parliament in 1834-before Canterbury had a crypt beneath the eastern apse, containing which it was degraded to the purpose of the speaker's state the so-called body of St Dunstan, and other relics, "fabricated," dining-room-it has been restored to its former sumptuousness according to Eadmer, “in the likeness of the confessionary of St of decoration, and is now one of the most beautiful architectural Peter at Rome" (see BASILICA). St Wilfrid constructed crypts gems in England. still existing beneath the churches erected by him in the latter Of Scottish cathedrals the only one that possesses a crypt is part of the 7th century at Hexham and Ripon. These are the cathedral of Glasgow, rendered celebrated by Sir Walter peculiarly interesting from their similarity in form and arrange- Scott in his novel of Rob Roy (ch. xx.). At the supposed date ment to the catacomb chapels with which Wilfrid must have of the tale, and indeed till a comparatively recent period, this become familiar during his residence in Rome. The cathedral, crypt was used as a place of worship by one of the three conbegun by Ethelwold and finished by Alphege at Winchester, at gregations among which the cathedral was partitioned, and was the end of the 10th century, had spacious crypts "supporting known as "the Laigh or Barony Kirk." It extends beneath the holy altar and the venerable relics of the saints" (Wulstan, the choir transepts and chapter-house; in consequence of the Life of St Ethelwold), and they appear to have been common in steep declivity on which the cathedral stands it is of unusual the earlier churches in England. The arrangement was adopted height and lightsomeness. It belongs to the 13th century, its by the Norman builders of the 11th and 12th centuries, and style corresponding to Early English, and is simply constructional, though far from universal is found in many of the cathedrals of the building being adapted to the locality. In architectural that date. The object of the construction of these crypts was beauty it is quite unequalled by any crypt in the United twofold, to give the altar sufficient elevation to enable those Kingdom, and can hardly anywhere be surpassed. It is an below to witness the sacred mysteries, and to provide a place of unusually rich example of the style, the clustered piers and burial for those holy men whose relics were the church's most | groining being exquisite in design and admirable in execution. precious possession. But the crypt was a foreign fashion," The bosses of the roof and capitals of the piers are very elaborate, derived, as has been said, from Rome, "which failed to and the doors are much enriched with foliage. "There is a take root in England, and indeed elsewhere barely outlasted solidity in its architecture, a richness in its vaulting, and a the Romanesque period" (Essays on Cathedrals, ed. Howson, variety of perspective in the spacing of its pillars, which make P. 331). it one of the most perfect pieces of architecture in these kingdoms " (Fergusson).

Of the crypts beneath English Norman cathedrals, that under the choir of Canterbury (q.v.) is by far the largest and most elaborate in its arrangements. It is, in fact, a subterranean church of vast size and considerable altitude. The whole crypt was dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and contained two chapels especially dedicated to her, the central one beneath the high altar, enclosed with rich Gothic screen-work, and one under the south transept. This latter chapel was appropriated by Queen Elizabeth to the use of the French Huguenot refugees who had settled at Canterbury in the time of Edward VI. There were also in this crypt a large number of altars and chapels of other saints, some of whose hallowed bodies were buried here. At the extreme east end, beneath the Trinity chapel, the body of St Thomas (Becket) was buried the day after his martyrdom, and lay there till his translation, July 7, 1220.

The cathedrals of Winchester, Worcester and Gloucester have crypts of slightly earlier date (they may all be placed between 1080 and 1100), but of similar character, though less elaborate. They all contain piscinas and other evidences of the existence of altars in considerable numbers. They are all apsidal. The most picturesque is that of Worcester, the work of Bishop Wulfstan (1084), which is remarkable for the multiplicity of small pillars supporting its radiating vaults. Instead of having the air of a sepulchral vault like those of Winchester and Gloucester, this crypt is, in Professor Willis's words, a complex and beautiful temple." Archbishop Roger's crypt at York, belonging to the next century (1154-1181), was filled up with earth when the

In the centre of the main alley stands the mutilated effigy of St Mungo, the patron saint of Glasgow, and at the south-east corner is a well called after the same saint.

Crypts under parish churches are not very uncommon in England, but they are usually small and not characterized by any architectural beauty. A few of the earlier crypts, however, deserve notice. One of the earliest and most remarkable is that of the church of Lastingham near Pickering in Yorkshire, on the site of the monastery founded in 648 by Cedd, bishop of the East Saxons. The existing crypt, though exceedingly rude in structure, is of considerably later date than Bishop Cedd, forming part of the church erected by Abbot Stephen of Whitby in 1080, when he had been driven inland by the incursions of the northern pirates. This crypt is remarkable from its extending under the nave as well as the chancel of the upper church, the plan of which it accurately reproduces, with the exception of the westernmost bay. It forms a nave with side aisles of three bays, and an apsidal chancel, lighted by narrow deeply splayed slits. The roof of quadripartite vaulting is supported by four very dwarf thick cylindrical columns, the capitals of which and of the responds are clumsy imitations of classical work with rude volutes. Still more curious is the crypt beneath the chancel of the church of Repton in Derbyshire. This also consists of a centre and side aisles, divided by three arches on either side. The architectural character, however, is very different from that at Lastingham, and is in some respects almost unique, the

piers being slender, and some of them of a singular spiral form, | Gothic, and both the lower and upper churches are covered with with a bead running in the sunken part of the spiral. Another rich frescoes. very extensive and curious Norman crypt is that beneath the chancel of St Peter's-in-the-East at Oxford. This is five bays in length, the quadripartite vaulting being supported by eight low, somewhat slender, cylindrical columns with capitals bearing grotesque animal and human subjects. Its dimensions are 36 by 20 ft. and 10 ft. in height. This crypt has been commonly attributed to Grymboldt in the 9th century; but it is really not very early Norman. Under the church of St Mary-le-Bow in London there is an interesting Norman crypt not very dissimilar in character to that last described. Of a later date is the remarkably fine Early English crypt groined in stone, beneath the chancel of Hythe in Kent, containing a remarkable collection of skulls and bones, the history of which is quite uncertain. There is also a Decorated crypt beneath the chancel at Wimborne minster, and one of the same date beneath the southern chancel aisle at Grantham.

Among the more remarkable French crypts may be mentioned those of the cathedrals of Auxerre, said to date from the original foundation in 1085; of Bayeux, attributed to Odo, bishop of that see, uterine brother of William the Conqueror, where twelve columns with rude capitals support a vaulted roof; of Chartres, running under the choir and its aisles, frequently assigned to Bishop Fulbert in 1029, but more probably coeval with the superstructure; and of Bourges, where the crypt is in the Pointed style, extending beneath the choir. The church of the Holy Trinity attached to Queen Matilda's foundation-the " Abbaye aux Dames" at Caen-has a Norman crypt where the thirty-four pillars are as closely set as those at Worcester. The church of St Eutropius at Saintes has also a crypt of the 11th century, of very large dimensions, which deserves special notice; the capitals of the columns exhibit very curious carvings. Earlier than any already mentioned is that of St Gervase of Rouen, considered by E. A. Freeman" the oldest ecclesiastical work to be seen north of the Alps." It is apsidal, and in its walls are layers of Roman brick. It is said to contain the remains of two of the earliest apostles of Gaul-St Mello and St Avitian. There are numerous crypts in Germany. One at Göttingen may be mentioned, where cylindrical shafts with capitals of singular design support vaulting of great elegance and lightness (Fergusson), the curves being those of a horseshoe arch. The crypts of the cathedrals or churches at Halberstadt, Hildesheim and Naumburg also deserve to be noticed; that of Lübeck may be rather called a lower choir. It is 20 ft. high and vaulted.

The Italian crypts, when found, as a rule reproduce the "confessio " of the primitive churches. That beneath the chancel of S. Michele at Pavia is an excellent typical example, probably dating from the 10th century. It is apsidal and vaulted, and is seven bays in length. That at S. Zeno at Verona (c. 1138) is still more remarkable; its vaulted roof is upborne by forty columns, with curiously carved capitals. It is approached from the west by a double flight of steps and contains many ancient monuments. S. Miniato at Florence, begun in 1013, has a very spacious crypt at the east end, forming virtually a second choir. It is seven bays in length and vaulted. The most remarkable crypt in Italy, however, is perhaps that of St Mark's, Venice. The plan of this is almost a Greek cross. Four rows of nine columns each run from end to end, and two rows of three each occupy the arms of the cross, supporting low stunted arches on which rests the pavement of the church above. This also constitutes a lower church, containing a chorus cantorum formed by a low stone screen, not unlike that of S. Clemente at Rome (see BASILICA), enclosing a massive stone altar with four low columns. This crypt is reasonably supposed to belong to the church founded by the doge P. Orseolo in 977. There are also crypts deserving notice at the cathedrals of Brescia, Fiesole and Modena, and the churches of S. Ambrogio and S. Eustorgio at Milan. The former was unfortunately modernized by St Charles Borromeo. The crypt at Assisi is really a second church at a lower level, and being built on the steep side of a hill is well lighted. The whole fabric is a beautiful specimen of Italian

Domestic crypts are of frequent occurrence. Medieval houses had as a rule their chief rooms raised above the level of the ground upon vaulted substructures, which were used as cellars and storerooms. These were sometimes partially underground, sometimes entirely above it. The underground vaults often remain when all the superstructure has been swept away, and from their Gothic character are frequently mistaken for ecclesiastical buildings. The older English towns are full of crypts of this character, now used as cellars. They occur in Oxford and Rochester, are very abundant in the older parts of Bristol, and, according to J. H. Parker, "nearly the whole city of Chester is built upon a series of them with the Rows or passages made on the top of the vaults " (Domestic Architecture, iii. 91). The crypt of Gerard's Hall in London, destroyed in the construction of New Cannon Street, figured by Parker (Dom. Arch. ii. 185), was a beautiful example of the lower storey of the residence of a wealthy merchant of the time of Edward I. It was divided down the middle by a row of four slender cylindrical columns supporting a very graceful vault. The finest example of a secular crypt now remaining in England is that beneath the Guildhall of London. The date of this is early in the 15th century-1411. It is a large and lofty apartment, divided into four alleys by two rows of clustered shafts supporting a rich lierne vault with ribs of considerable intricacy. There is a fine vaulted crypt of the same date and of similar character beneath St Mary's Hall, the Guildhall of the city of Coventry. (E. V.)

CRYPTEIA (Gr. кρúπтew, to hide), a kind of secret police in ancient Sparta, founded, according to Aristotle, by Lycurgus; there is, however, no real evidence as to the date of its origin. The institution was under the supervision of the ephors, who, on entering office, annually proclaimed war against the helots (serf-class) and thus absolved from the guilt of murder any Spartan who should slay a helot. It was instituted primarily as a precaution against the ever-present danger of a helot revolt, and secondarily perhaps as a training for young Spartans, who were sent out by the ephors to keep watch on the helots and assassinate any who might appear dangerous. Plato (Laws, i. p. 633) emphasizes the former aspect, but there can be little doubt that, at all events after the revolt of 464 (see CIMON), its more sinister purpose was predominant, as we may gather from the secret massacre of 2000 helots who, on the invitation of the ephors, claimed to have rendered distinguished service (Thuc. iv. 8o).

See HELOTS; EPHOR; also A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of Gk. Const. Hist. (London, 1896); G. Gilbert, Gk. Const. Antiq. (Eng. trans., London, 1895).

CRYPTOBRANCHUS, a genus of thoroughly aquatic, but lung-breathing tailed Batrachia, of the family Amphiumidae, characterized by a heavy, flattened build, a very porous tubercular skin, with a frilled fold along each side, short stout limbs with four very short fingers and five very short toes, and minute eyes without lids. The vertebrae are biconcave, and although the gills are lost in the adult, ossified gill-arches, two to four in number, persist. A strong series of vomerine teeth extends across the palate. Three species of this genus are known. One is the well-known fossil of Oeningen first described as Homo diluvii testis and shown by Cuvier to be nearly related to the gigantic salamander of Japan, Cryptobranchus maximus, which has since been found to inhabit China also; the third is the hellbender, mud-puppy or water-dog of North America, C. alleghaniensis, also known under the name of Menopoma. Both the fossil C. scheuchzeri and C. maximus grow to a length of over 5 ft. and are by far the largest Urodeles known, whilst C. alleghaniensis reaches the respectable length of 18 in.

The eggs are laid in rosary-like strings. They have been found, in Japan, deposited in deep holes in the water, where they form large clumps (70 to 80 eggs) round which the female coils herself. The gigantic salamander has also bred in the Amsterdam zoological gardens, the eggs numbering upwards of 500; the male, it is stated, took charge of the eggs, and for the

writers on the subject are John Falconer (Cryptomenysis patefacta), 1685; John Davys (An Essay on the Art of Decyphering: in which is inserted a Discourse of Dr Wallis), 1737; Philip | Thicknesse (A Treatise on the Art of Decyphering and of Writing in Cypher), 1772; William Blair (the writer of the comprehensive article "Cipher" in Rees's Cyclopaedia), 1819; and G. von Marten (Cours diplomatique), 1801 (a fourth edition of which appeared in 1851). Perhaps the best modern work on this subject is the Kryptographik of J. L. Klüber (Tübingen, 1809), who was drawn into the investigation by inclination and official circumstances. In this work the different methods of cryptography are classified. Amongst others of lesser merit who have treated of this art may be named Gustavus Selenus (i.e. Augustus, duke of Brunswick), 1624; Cospi, translated by Niceron in 1641; the marquis of Worchester, 1659; Kircher, 1663; Schott, 1665; Ludwig Heinrich Hiller, 1682; Comiers, 1690; Baring, 1737; Conrad, 1739, &c. See also a paper on Elizabethan Cipher-books by A. J. Butler in the Bibliographical Society's Transactions, London, 1901.

Schemes of cryptography are endless in their variety. Bacon lays down the following as the "virtues" to be looked for in them:-" that they be not laborious to write and read; that they be impossible to decipher; and, in some cases, that they be without suspicion." These principles are more or less disregarded by all the modes that have been advanced, including that of Bacon himself, which has been unduly extolled by his admirers as one of the most ingenious methods of writing in cypher, and the most difficult to be decyphered, of any yet contrived" (Thicknesse, p. 13).

years such codes have been adapted by merchants and others to write carefully in good cyphers." write carefully in good cyphers." In his next he allays his communications by telegraph, and have served the purpose not correspondent's apprehensiveness as to the deciphering of their only of keeping business affairs private, but also of reducing letters. the excessive cost of telegraphic messages to distant markets. Obviously this class of ciphers presents greater difficulties to the skill of the decipherer.

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