every one thought that Czartoryski, who more than any other
man had prepared the way for it, would be its first governor-
general, but he was content with the title of senator-palatine
and a share in the administration. In 1817 the prince married
Anna Sapiezanko, the wedding leading to a duel with his rival
Pac. On the death of his father in 1823 he retired to his ancestral
castle at Pulawy; but the Revolution of 1830 brought him back
to public life. As president of the provisional government he
summoned (Dec. 18th, 1830) the Diet of 1831, and after the
termination of Chlopicki's dictatorship was elected chief of
the supreme council by 121 out of 138 votes (January 30th).
On the 16th of September his disapproval of the popular excesses
at Warsaw caused him to quit the government after sacrificing
half his fortune to the national cause; but it must be admitted
that throughout the insurrection he did not act up to his great
reputation. Yet the energy of the sexagenarian statesman was
wonderful. On the 23rd of August he joined Girolano
Ramorino's army-corps as a volunteer, and subsequently formed
a confederation of the three southern provinces of Kalisch,
Sandomir and Cracow. At the end of the war he emigrated to
France, where he resided during the last thirty years of his life.
He died at his country residence at Montfermeil, near Meaux, |
on the 15th of July 1861. He left two sons, Witold (1824-
1865), and Wladyslaus (1828-1894), and a daughter Isabella,
who married Jan Dzialynski in 1857. The principal works of
Czartoryski are Essai sur la diplomatie (Marseilles, 1830);
Life of J. U. Niemcewiez (Pol). (Paris, 1860); Alexander I. et
Czartoryski: correspondance. .. et conversations (1801-1823)
(Paris, 1865); Mémoires et correspondance avec Alex. I., with
preface by C. de Mazade, 2 vols. (Paris, 1887); an English
translation Memoirs of Czartoryski, &c., edited by A. Gielguch,
with documents relating to his negotiations with Pitt, and
conversations with Palmerston in 1832 (2 vols., London, 1888).
See Bronislaw Zaleski, Life of Adam Czartoryski (Pol.) (Paris,
1881); Lubomir Gadon, Prince Adam Czartoryski (Pol.) (Cracow,
1892); Ludovik Debicki, Pulawy, vol, iv.; Lubomir Gadon, Prince
Adam Czartoryski during the Insurrection of November (Pol.) (Cracow,
1900).
(R. N. B.)
CZARTORYSKI, FRYDERYK MICHAL, PRINCE (1696-1775),
Polish statesman, was born in 1696. Of small means and no
position, he owed his elevation in the world to extraordinary
ability, directed by an energetic but patriotic ambition. After
a careful education on the best French models, which he com-
pleted at Paris, Florence and Rome, he attached himself to the
court of Dresden, and through the influence of Count Fleming,
the leading minister there, obtained the vice-chancellorship of
Lithuania and many other dignities. Czartoryski was one of the
many Polish nobles who, when Augustus II. was seriously ill
at Bialyvostok in 1727, signed the secret declaration guaranteeing
the Polish succession to his son; but this did not prevent him
from repudiating his obligations when Stanislaus Leszczynski
was placed upon the throne by the influence of France in 1733.
When Stanislaus abdicated in 1735 Czartoryski voted for
Augustus III. (of Saxony), who gladly employed him and his
family to counteract the influence of the irreconcilable Potokis.
For the next forty years Czartoryski was certainly the leading
Polish statesman. In foreign affairs he was the first to favour
an alliance with Russia, Austria and England, as opposed to
France and Prussia-a system difficult to sustain and not always
beneficial to Poland or Saxony, In Poland Czartoryski was at
the head of the party of reform. His palace was the place where
the most promising young gentlemen of the day were educated
and sent abroad that they might return as his coadjutors in the
great work. His plan aimed at the restoration of the royal
prerogative and the abolition of the liberum veto, an abuse that
made any durable improvement impossible. These patriotic
endeavours made the Czartoryskis very unpopular with the
ignorant szlachta, but for many years they had the firm and
constant support of the Saxon court, especially after Brühl
succeeded Fleming.

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date the influence of his rival Mniszek began to prevail at Dresden, whereupon Czartoryski sought a reconciliation with his political opponents at home and foreign support both in England and Russia. In 1755 he sent his nephew Stanislaus Poniatowski to St Petersburg as Saxon minister, a mission which failed completely. Czartoryski's philo-Russian policy had by this time estranged Brühl, but he frustrated all the plans of the Saxon court by dissolving the diets of 1760, 1761 and 1762. In 1763 he went a step farther and proposed the dethronement of Augustus III., who died the same year. During the ensuing interregnum the prince chancellor laboured night and day at the convocation diet of 1764 to reform the constitution, and it was with displeasure that he saw his incompetent nephew Stanislaus finally elected king in 1765. But though disgusted with the weakness of the king and obliged to abandon at last all hope of the amelioration of his country, Czartoryski continued to hold office till the last; and as chancellor of Lithuania he sealed all the partition treaties. He died in the full possession of his faculties and was considered by the Russian minister Repnin "the soundest head in the kingdom." It is a mistake, however, to regard Czartoryski as the sole reforming statesman of his day, and despite his great services there were occasions when the partisan in him got the better of the statesman. His foreign policy, moreover, was very vacillating, and he changed his "system more frequently perhaps than any contemporary diplomatist. But when all is said he must remain one of the noblest names in Polish history.

See the Correspondence of Czartoryski in the Collections of the Russian Historical Society, vols. 7, 10, 13, 48, 51, 67 (St Petersburg, 1890, &c.); Wladyslaw Tadeusz Kisielewski, Reforms of the Czar torysccy (Pol.) (Sambor, 1880); Adalbert Roepell, Polen um die Mitte des XVIII. Jahrhunderts (Gotha, 1876); Jacques Victor Albert de Broglie, Le Secret du roi (Paris, 1878); Antoni Waliszewki, The Potoccy and the Czartorysccy (Pol.); Carl Heinrich Heyking, Aus Polens und Kurlands letzten Tagen (Berlin, 1897); Ludwik Denbicki, Pulawy (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1887-1888). (R. N. B.)

CZECH (in Bohemian, Čech), a name which signifies an inhabitant of Čechy, the native designation of Bohemia, The Czechs belong to the Slavic race, and according to the usually accepted division they form, together with the Poles and the almost extinct Lusatians, the group of the Western Slavs. Speaking generally, it can be said that the Czechs inhabit a large part of Bohemia, a yet larger part of Moravia, parts of Silesia— both Austrian and Prussian― and extensive districts in northern Hungary. In the 19th century the Czechs of Hungary-much to their own detriment-developed a written language that differs slightly from that used in Bohemia, but as regards their race they are identical with the Bohemians and Moravians. Beyond the borders of this continuous territory there are many Czechs in Lower Austria. Vienna in particular has a large and increasing Czech population. There are also numerous Czechs in Russia, particularly Volhynia, in the United States-where a large number of newspapers and periodicals are published in the Czech language—and in London. Though the statistics are very uncertain and untrustworthy, it can be stated that the Czechs number about eight millions.

The period at which the Czechs settled in Bohemia is very uncertain; all theories, indeed, with regard to the advent of the Slavs in northern and eastern Europe are merely conjectural. It was formerly generally accepted as a fact that all Bohemia was originally inhabited by Celtic tribes, who were succeeded by the Germanic Marcomanni, and later by the Slavic Czechs. According to a very ancient tradition reproduced in the book of Cosmas, the earliest Bohemian chronicler, the Czechs arrived in Bohemia led by their eponymous chief Čechus, and first settled on the Řip Hill (Georgberg) near Roudnice. It is a strange proof of the intense obscurity of the earliest Bohemian history that Cosmas, writing at the beginning of the 12th century, is already unaware of the existence of pre-Slavic inhabitants of Bohemia. It is historically certain that the Czechs inhabited parts of Bohemia as early as the 6th century. In the absence of all Czartoryski reached the height of his power in 1752 when he historical evidence, modern Czech scholars have endeavoured was entrusted with the great seal of Lithuania; but after that | by other means to throw some light on the earliest period of the

f

Czechs. By craniological studies and a thorough examination | zealous for the purity of the language of his country, often in his of the fields where the dead were burnt (in Czech žárove pole), sermons inveighed quaintly and vehemently against those who still found in some parts of Bohemia, they have arrived at the defiled the Czech language by introducing numerous Germanconclusion that parts of the country were inhabited by Czechs, isms." A century later the Czech language was largely indebted or at least by Slavs, long before the Christian era, perhaps about to the then recently founded community of the Bohemian (or the year 500 B.C. as they were also often called, Moravian) brethren. A member of the community, Brother John Blakoslav, wrote in 1571 a Grammatika Česká, that still has considerable philological interest. It contains a full account of the construction of the Czech language, based on Latin grammar, with which the writer was thoroughly acquainted. Divines belonging to the same community also at the end of the 16th century published at Kralice in Moravia a complete Czech version of the Old and New Testaments. Together with the Labyrint Světa (Labyrinth of the World) of Komensky (Comenius), who was also a member of the brotherhood, it can be considered a model of the Czech language in the period immediately preceding its downfall.

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The Czechs have always enthusiastically upheld the language of their country. In ancient Czech, indeed, the same word jazyk denotes both "nation" and language." As late as in 1608 a decree of the estates of Bohemia declared that Czech was the only official and recognized state-language, and that all who

to acquire the knowledge of it. While all patriots thus supported the national language, it was greatly disliked by the absolutists who were opposed to the ancient free constitution of Bohemia, as well as by all who favoured the Church of Rome. The overthrow of Bohemian independence at the battle of the White Mountain (1620) was therefore shortly followed by the decline of the Czech language. All Czech writings which could be found were destroyed by the Austrian authorities as being tainted with heresy, while no new books written in Czech appeared, except occasional prayer-books and almanacs. For these scanty writings the German so-called "Schwabach" characters were used, and this custom only ceased in the middle of the 19th century. The Czech language, for some time entirely excluded: from the schools, all but ceased to be written, and its revival at the beginning of the 19th century was almost a resurrection. The first originator of the movement, Joseph Dobrovský or Doubravský (1753–1829) seems himself, at least at the beginning of his life, to have considered it impossible that Czech should

It is certain that the Slavs at the time when they first appeared in history had a common language, known as the ancient Slavic (praslovanský) language. When in the course of time the Slavs occupied various countries, which were often widely apart, different dialects arose among them, many of which were influenced by the language of the neighbouring non-Slavic populations. Thus the Czech language from an early period absorbed many German words. It is probable that the development of the Czech language as an independent one, was very gradual. Existent documents, such as the hymn to St Wenceslas, which belongs to the second half of the 10th century, are written partly in old-Slavic, partly in Czech. When the Slavs first occupied Bohemia, they were probably divided into several tribes, of which the Czechs, who inhabited Prague and the country surrounding it, were the most powerful. It is probable that these smaller tribes were only gradually subdued by the Czechs and that some of them had previously to their absorp-wished to acquire citizenship in the country should be obliged tion adopted special dialects. The Netolice, Lučane, Pšovane, Sedlčane appear to have been among the more important tribes who were forced to acknowledge the supremacy of the Czechs, and it may be conjectured that their language for a time differed slightly from that of their conquerors. The Czech language has, like all Slavic ones, a strong tendency to develop dialects; this was the case at the time of its first appearance as an independent language, and has to a certain extent continued up to the present day. The dialects of Moravia and the northern districts of Hungary still show variations from the generally accepted forms of the Czech language, though since the foundation of the Czech university of Prague this—at least among the educated classes-is no longer true to the same extent as it formerly was. The Czech language at the time of its formation naturally remained closest to those other Slav-speaking countries which were geographically its neighbours, the Poles and the Lusatians, and it may be said that this is still the case. The Czech language at the time when in the 12th and 13th centuries it first appears as a separate and distinct one, differed consider-again become a widely-spoken language, and one whose literature ably from that of the present day. Ancient Czech had several diphthongs, such as: ia, ie, iu, uo and au, that are unknown to the present language. The letter "" had a threefold sound, and besides the letters b, p, m, v, the softer forms b', p', m', v', were also in existence. The letter g (as in other Slavic languages) was often used where modern Czechs employ the letter h. Ancient Bohemian had three numbers, the singular, plural and dual; of the dual only scant vestiges remain in modern Czech. Once it had obtained its independence, the Czech language developed rapidly, and the philosophical and theological writings of Thomas of Štitný (1331–1401) proved that it could already be used even for dealing with the most abstract subjects, though Štitný was blamed by the monks for not writing in Latin, as was then customary. The Czech language is greatly indebted also to John Hus, whose best and most original works were written in the language of his country. Hus showed great interest in the orthography and grammar of his language, and has devoted an interesting treatise entitled 'Orthographia | bohemica " to it. As already mentioned, the Czech language had sprung from diverse dialects, and Hus endeavoured to establish uniformity. To the Bohemian reformer is also due the system of so-called diacritic marks-such as č, ů, ý—which with some modifications are still in use. The Latin characters which were in the earliest times, as again at the present day, used when writing Czech, are quite unable to reproduce some sounds peculiar to Slavic languages. This was remedied by the introduction of these marks, and Hus's system of orthography became known as the diacritic one. The Bohemian reformer, For the pronunciation of these see the footnote at the beginning

of the article BOHEMIA.

could successfully compete with that of larger countries. Yet it was the works of this "patriarch of Slavic philology" which first drew the public attention to the half-forgotten Czech language. Dobrovský's work was afterwards continued by Kolar, Jungmann, Palacký, Šafařek, and many others, and Czech literature has, both as regards its value and its extension, reached a height that in the middle of the 19th century would have appeared incredible.

Though met by constant opposition on the part of the Austrian authorities, the Czechs have succeeded in re-establishing the use of their language in many of the lower and middle schools of Bohemia and Moravia, and the foundation of a Czech university at Prague (1882-1884) has of course contributed very largely to the ever-increasing expansion of the Czech language. The national language has at all times appeared to the Bohemians as the palladium of their nationality and independence, and the movement in favour of the revival of the Czech language necessarily became a political one, as soon as circumstances permitted. The friends of the national language at the beginning of the 19th century were generally known as the vlastenci (patriots), but when in 1848 representatives of many parts of Austria met at Vienna, the deputies of Bohemia-with the exception of the Germans-formed what was called the national or Czech party. Parliamentary government did not at that period long survive, and at the end of the year 1851 absolutism had been re-established. In 1860 a new attempt to establish constitutional government in Austria was made, and representatives of the Czech party appeared at the provincial diet The Czech of Prague and the central parliament at Vienna. party endeavoured to obtain the re-establishment of the ancient

Bohemian constitution, but, allied as they were with a large | the town manufacture cotton, cloth and paper, and do a lively part of the Bohemian nobility, it was their policy to maintain business in rosaries, images, scapularies and so forth. a somewhat conservative attitude. After having absented themselves for a considerable time from the parliament of Vienna, the legality of which they denied, the Czech deputies reappeared in Vienna in 1879, and, together with the representatives of the Bohemian nobility, formed there what was known as the Česky Klub.

D

The fourth letter in the English alphabet occupies the | his capital from Rajmahal to Dacca, no vestige remains; but same position in the Latin, Greek and Phoenician alphabets, which represent the preceding stages in its history. The Phoenician name Daleth is represented by the Greek Delta. In form D has varied throughout its career comparatively little. In the earliest Phoenician it is with slight variations; in most Greek dialects A which has been adopted as the Greek literary form, but in others as e.g. the earliest Attic or. The form with the rounded back, which has passed from Latin into the languages of western Europe, was borrowed from the Greeks of S.W. Italy, but is widely spread also amongst the peoples of the Peloponnese and of northern Greece. It arises from a form like▷ when the sides which meet to the right are written or engraved at one stroke. From a very early period one side of the triangle was often prolonged, thus producing a form 4 which is characteristic of Aramaic from 800 B.C. In Greek this was avoided because of the likelihood of its confusion with 9, the oldest form of the symbol for r, but in the alphabets of Italy-which were borrowed from Etruscan-this confusion actually takes place. Etruscan had no sound corresponding to the symbol D (in inscriptions written from right to left, α), and hence used it as a by-form for 4, the symbol for r. The Oscans and Umbrians took it over in this value, but having the sound d they used for it the symbol for r (9 in Umbrian, Я in Oscan).

The sound which D represents is the voiced dental corresponding to the unvoiced t. The English d, however, is not a true dental, but is really pronounced by placing the tongue against the sockets of the teeth, not the teeth themselves. It thus differs from the d of French and German, and in phonetic terminology is called an alveolar. In the languages of India where both true dentals and alveolars are found, the English d is represented by the alveolar symbol (transliterated d). Etymologically in genuine English words d represents in most cases dh of the original Indo-European language, but in some cases an original t. In many languages d develops an aspirate after it, and this dh becomes then a voiced spirant (d), the initial sound of there and that. This has occurred widely in Semitic, and is found also in languages like modern Greek, where d, except after v, is always spirant, dév (=not) being pronounced like English then. As the mouth position for 7 differs from that for d only by the breath being allowed to escape past one or both sides of the tongue, confusion has arisen in many languages between d and, the best-known being cases like the Latin lacrima as compared with the Greek dák-pv. The English tear and the forms of other languages show that d and not is the more original sound. Between vowels in the ancient Umbrian d passed into a sound which was transliterated in the Latin alphabet by rs; this was probably a sibilant r, like the Bohemian . In many languages it is unvoiced at the end of words, thus becoming almost or altogether identical with t. As an abbreviation it is used in Latin for the praenomen Decimus, and under the empire for the title Divus of certain deceased emperors. As a Roman numeral (= 500) it is only the half of the old symbol (1000); this was itself the old form of the Greek 4, which was useless in Latin as that language had no sound identical with the Greek . (P. Gr.) DACCA, a city of British India, giving its name to a district and division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It was made the capital of that province on its creation in October 1905. The city is 254 m. N.E. by E. of Calcutta, on an old channel of the Ganges. Railway station, 10 m. from the terminus of the river steamers at Narayanganj. The area is about 8 sq. m. The population in 1901 was 90,542. The ruins of the English factory, St Thomas's church, and the houses of the European residents lie along the river banks. Of the old fort erected by Islam Khan, who in 1608 was appointed nawab of Bengal, and removed'

the jail is built on a portion of its site. The principal Mahommedan public buildings, erected by subsequent governors and now in ruins, are the Katra and the Lal-bagh palace-the former built by Sultan Mahommed Shuja in 1645, in front of the chauk or market place. Its extensive front faced the river, and had a lofty central gateway, flanked by smaller entrances, and by two octagonal towers rising to some height above the body of the building. The Lal-bagh palace was commenced by Azam Shah, the third son of the emperor Aurangzeb. It originally stood close to the Buriganga river; but the channel has shifted its course, and there is now an intervening space covered with trees between it and the river. The walls on the western side, and the terrace and battlement towards the river, are of a considerable height, and present a commanding aspect from the water. These outworks, with a few gateways, the audience hall and the baths, were the only parts of the building that survived in 1840. Since then their dilapidation has rapidly advanced; but even in ruin they show the extensive and magnificent scale on which this princely residence was originally designed. It appears never to have been completed; and when Jean Baptiste Tavernier visited Dacca (c. 1666), the nawab was residing in a temporary wooden building in its court. The English factory was built about that year. The central part of the old factory continued to be used as a court-house till the 19th century, but owing to its ruinous state it was pulled down in 1829 or 1830; in 1840 the only portion that remained was the outward wall. The French and Dutch factories were taken possession of by the English in the years 1778 and 1781 respectively. In the mutiny of 1857 two companies of the 73rd Native Infantry which were stationed in the town joined in the revolt, but were overpowered by a small European force and dispersed. The city still shows some signs of its former magnificence. The famous manufacture of fine muslins is almost extinct, but the carving of shells, carried on from ancient times, is an important industry in the city. There are a Government college, a collegiate school and an unaided Hindu college. There is a large settlement of mixed Portuguese descent, known as Feringhis. Many of the public buildings, including the college, suffered severely from the earthquake of the 12th of June 1897; and great damage was done by tornadoes in April of 1888 and 1902,

The district of Dacca comprises an area of 2782 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 2,649,522, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The district consists of a vast level plain, divided into two sections by the Dhaleswari river. The northern part, again intersected by the Lakshmia river, contains the city of Dacca, and as a rule lies well above flood-level.

Dacca is watered by a network of rivers and streams, ten of which are navigable throughout the year by native cargo boats of four tons burthen. Among them are the Meghna, the Ganges or Padma, the Lakshmia, a branch of the Brahmaputra, the Jamuna, or main stream of the Brahmaputra, the Mendi-Khali, a large branch of the Meghna, the Dhaleswari, an offshoot of the Jamuna, the Ghazi-khali and the Buriganga. The soil is composed of red ferruginous kankar, with a stratum of clay in the more elevated parts, covered by a thin layer of vegetable mould, or by recent alluvial deposits. The scenery along the Lakshmia is very beautiful, the banks being high and wooded. About 20 m. north of Dacca city, small ridges are met with in the Madhupur jungle, stretching into Mymensingh district. These hills, however, are mere mounds of from 20 to 40 ft. high, composed of red soil containing a considerable quantity of iron ore; and the whole tract is for the most part unproductive. Towards the city the red soil is intersected by creeks and morasses, whose margins yield crops of rice, mustard and til seed; while to the east of the town, a broad, alluvial, well-cultivated plain reaches as far as the junction of the Dhaleswari and Lakshmia rivers. The country lying to the south of the Dhaleswari is the most

fertile part of the district. It consists entirely of rich alluvial soil, annually inundated to a depth varying from 2 to 14 ft. of water. The villages are built on artificial mounds of earth, so as to raise them above the flood-level.

a

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of the marriage of a friend. Among his hymns, many of which
are of great beauty, are the following: Ich bin ja, Herr, in deiner
Macht, Ich bin bei Gott in Gnaden durch Christi Blut und Tod,
and O, wie selig seid ihr boch, ihr Frommen.

also selections by the same editor (1876), and in Kürschner's
Editions of Dach's poems have been published by W. Müller
(1823), by H. Österley (for the Stuttgart Literarischer Verein, 1876);
Deutsche Nationalliteratur (1883). See especially the introductions
und seine ausgewählte Dichtungen (1896).
to Österley's editions; also H. Stiehler, Simon Dach, sein Leben

district of central Europe, bounded on the N. by the Carpathians,
DACIA, in ancient geography, the land of the Daci, a large
on the E. by the Tyras (Dniester), thus corresponding in the main
on the S. by the Danube, on the W. by the Pathissus (Theiss),
to the modern Rumania and Transylvania.
it may originally have extended as far as the Danube where it
Towards the west
hand Ptolemy puts its eastern boundary as far back as the
runs from north to south at Waitzen (Vacz), while on the other
Hierasus (Sereth). The inhabitants of this district were a
Thracian stock, originally called Aão, a name which after
Thracian tribes the Getae (q.v.) were most akin to them in
the 4th century
language and manners; by the Greeks the Dacians were usually
B.C. gave place to Aakoi. Of the other
Geta) were common as names of slaves in Attic comedy and in
called Getae, by the Romans Daci.
the adaptations of Plautus and Terence.
Δᾶος and Γέτα (Davus,

The wild animals found in the district comprise a few tigers, leopards and wild elephants, deer, wild pig, porcupines, jackals, foxes, hares, otters, &c. The green monkey is very common; porpoises abound in the large rivers. The manufactures consist. of weaving, embroidery, gold and silver work, shell-carving and pottery. The weaving industry and the manufacture of fine Dacca muslins have greatly fallen off, owing to the competition of European piece goods. Forty different kinds of cloth were formerly manufactured in this district, the bulk of which during many years was made from English twist, country thread being used only for the finest muslins. It is said that, in the time of the emperor Jahangir, a piece of muslin, 15 ft. by 3, could be manufactured, weighing only 900 grains, its value being £40. In 1840 the finest cloth that could be made of the above dimensions weighed about 1600 grains, and was worth £10. Since then the manufacture has still further decayed, and the finer kinds are not now made at all except to order. The district is traversed by a line of the Eastern Bengal railway, but most of the traffic is still conducted by water. It is a centre of the jute trade. The division of Dacca occupies the delta of the Brahmaputra, where it joins the main stream of the Ganges. It consists of the four districts of Dacca, Mymensingh, Faridpur and Backergunge. Its area is 15,837 sq. m. Its population in 1901 was 10,793,988. when they first became known to the Romans. They believed The Dacians had attained a considerable degree of civilization DACE, DARE, or DART (Leuciscus vulgaris, or L. dobula), freshwater fish belonging to the family Cyprinidae. It is an a change of country (uerouiseofa). Their chief priest held in, the immortality of the soul, and regarded death as merely inhabitant of the rivers and streams of Europe north of the Alps, but it is most abundant in those of France and Germany.earth; he was the king's chief adviser and his decisions were a prominent position as the representative of the deity upon It prefers clear streams flowing over a gravelly bottom, and accepted as final. They were divided into two classes—an deep, still water, keeping close to the bottom in winter but aristocracy and a proletariate. The first alone had the right to disporting itself near the surface in the sunshine of summer, It is preyed upon by the larger predaceous fishes of fresh waters, TλopóρOL, pileati); they formed a privileged class, and were cover their heads and wore a felt hat (hence tarabostesei= and owing to its silvery appearance is a favourite bait in pike- the predecessors of the Rumanian boyars. The second class, fishing. The dace is a lively, active fish, of gregarious habits, and exceedingly prolific, depositing its eggs in May and June artisans, wore their hair long (Kounтai, capillati). They dwelt who comprised the rank and file of the army, the peasants and at the roots of aquatic plants or in the gravelly beds of the in wooden huts surrounded by palisades, but in later times,. streams it frequents. Its flesh is wholesome, but is not held in aided by Roman architects, built walled strongholds and conical much estimation. In appearance it closely resembles the roach, stone towers. usually attaining a length of 8 or 9 in., with the head and back cattle breeding; horses were mainly used as draught animals. Their chief occupations were agriculture and of a dusky blue colour and the sides of a shining silvery aspect, They also worked the gold and silver mines of Transylvania, with numerous dark lines running along the course of the scales. and carried on a considerable outside trade, as is shown by the The ventral and anal fins are white, tinged with pale red; and number of foreign coins found in the country. the dorsal, pectoral and caudal tipped with black. The dace feeds on worms, insects, insect-larvae, and also on vegetable matter. It is abundant in many of the streams of the south of England, but is unknown in Scotland and Ireland. In America the name of dace is also applied to members of other genera of the family; the "horned dace" (Semnotilus atromaculatus) is a well-known variety.

DACH, SIMON (1605-1659), German lyrical poet, was born at Memel in East Prussia on the 29th of July 1605, Although brought up in humble circumstances, he received a careful education in the classical schools of Königsberg, Wittenberg and Magdeburg, and entered the university of Königsberg in 1626 as a student of theology and philosophy. After taking his degree, he was appointed in 1633 Kollaborator (teacher) and in 1636 co-rector of the Domschule (cathedral school) in that city. In 1639 he received the chair of poetry at the university of Königsberg, which he occupied until his death on the 15th of April 1659. In Königsberg he entered into close relations with Heinrich Albert (1604-1651), Robert Roberthin (1600-1648) and Sibylla Schwarz (1621-1638), and with them formed the so-called Königsberger Dictergruppe. He sang the praises of the house of the electors of Brandenburg in a collection of poems entitled Kurbrandenburgische Rose, Adler, Löwe und Scepter (1661), and also produced many occasional poems, several of which became popular; the most famous of them is Anke von Tharaw öss, de my geföllt (rendered by Herder into modern German as Ännchen von Tharau), composed in 1637 in honour

beginning of the 2nd century B.C. under a king Oroles. Conflicts A kingdom of Dacia was in existence at least as early as the with the Bastarnae and the Romans (112-109, 74), against whom they had assisted the Scordisci and Dardani, had greatly weakened the resources of the Dacians. Under Burbista (Boerebista), a contemporary of Caesar, who thoroughly reorganized of the kingdom were extended; the Bastarnae and Boii were the army and raised the moral standard of the people, the limits conquered, and even Greek towns (Olbia, Apollonia) on the Euxine fell into his hands. Indeed the Dacians appeared so formidable that Caesar contemplated an expedition against them, which was prevented by his death. time Burbista was murdered, and the kingdom was divided into four (or five) parts under separate rulers. One of these was About the same Cotiso, whose daughter Augustus is said to have desired to marry and to whom he betrothed his own five-year-old daughter Julia. He is well known from the line in Horace ("Occidit Daci Cotisonis agmen," Odes, iii. 8. 18), which, as the ode was written on the 1st of March 29, probably refers to the campaign of Marcus Crassus (30-28), not to that of Cornelius Lentulus, who was not consul till 18. The Dacians are often mentioned under Augustus, according to whom they were compelled to recognize the Roman supremacy. But they were by no means subdued, and in later times seized every opportunity of crossing the frozen Danube Dacians were engaged in two wars with the Romans, under Duras and ravaging the province of Moesia. From A.D. 85 to 89 the or Diurpaneus, and the great Decebalus, who ruled from 86-87;