governors like George Clinton, Jay, Lewis, Tompkins, Marcy, and De Witt Clinton, and to noble superintendents like Hawley, Yates, Flagg, Dix, and Spencer.1

The "Public-school Society " of New York City (1805 -1853) was formed to establish a free school for the poor. A free school for girls had been opened in 1802, and various religious societies supported "charity schools." De Witt Clinton was president of the society, which opened its first public school in 1806. Primary departments were introduced about 1831, and soon a normal school was opened (1843). When the society and the city board of education were consolidated (1853), over $3,500,000 had been spent for the education of 600,000 children.

Newspapers.-The 364 post-offices in the state (1811) had increased in number to 1,453 (1834). This meant that the people wrote more letters and read more papers and books. The oldest newspaper in New York as a state is The Commercial Advertiser (1793). Among its editors were Noah Webster, William L. Stone, and Thurlow Weed. Philip Freneau started The Time Piec (1797), and The Evening Post and The American Citizen came next (1801). The Federalists established The Post, and the Clintonians ran The Citizen. Burr's friends published The Morning Chronicle (1802), in which appeared the earliest productions of Washington Irving, the first great American writer. The Albany Argus (1813) was the mouthpiece of the Albany Regency, and The National Advocate represented Tam

For thirty years (1821-1851) the office of superintendent of schools was merged into that of secretary of state.

many Hall. The leading papers of a later date were The Ploughboy and The Journal of Commerce (1821), The New York Patriot (1823), The New York Courier and Enquirer (1827), The Albany Evening Journal, an Antimasonic paper edited by Thurlow Weed, and The New York Express (1836). Nearly every village had its weekly paper. No newspapers were printed in Franklin and Putnam counties. Papers sold for six cents when The Sun appeared as the first penny paper in America (1833). The Morning Post was published by Horace Greeley the same year, and was followed in two years by The New York Herald of James Gordon Bennett. A few magazines had appeared. In 1835 there were 260 newspapers in the state, of which 25 were dailies, 15 being in the metropolis alone.

Institutions of Culture came with the general progress. The New York Historical Society was founded (1804), and in 1809 celebrated Hudson's discovery. The American Academy of Fine Arts (1808), the Lyceum of Natural History (1818), and the National Academy of Design (1826) were established. The New York Society Library, started in 1754, owned 40,000 volumes (1835). The State Library was organized at the capital (1818), and soon libraries were started all over the state. The American Lyceum was begun (1831) and extensively copied. A geological survey was ordered (1836), and the reports brought great credit to the state.

Religious Organizations began in this period. The American Bible Society (1816), the American Board of Foreign Missions, the American Home Missionary Society (1826), the American Sunday-school Union So

ciety, the American Tract Society (1825), the American Seaman's Friend Society (1826), the Marine Bible Society, the New York Bible Society, the New York City Tract Society, the New York Sunday-school Union, and the American Society for Meliorating the Condition of the Jews were opening a splendid field of work. The number of clergymen in the state increased from 761 (1819) to 1,920 (1835). The public conscience, aroused to the evils of the day, organized the Colonization Society of the City of New York (1831), the American Antislavery Society (1833), the American Temperance Union, the New York State Temperance Society, and the Female Moral Reform Society.

Pris

Charity and Crime.-People were beginning to feel it a duty to care for the poor and the unfortunate. ons were built with thought for the health, education, and morality of the inmates-Auburn in 1816 and Sing Sing in 1825. The severe criminal laws of England had been early modified (1798). The first asylum for the insane was built in New York City. Then followed an institution for the deaf and dumb (1818), and another for the blind, and an eye and ear infirmary (1820). Hospitals were coming into general use. A medical college was established in the metropolis (1807), and another at Fairfield, and a state law required the 2,650 physicians to hold a license to practice. Governor Clinton had an act passed to provide for county poorhouses (1824), and soon 43 counties had them. In 1834 the state paid $330,000 for the care of unfortunates, criminals, and paupers.

The Social Conditions were gradually changing. Aristocracy was fast losing its hold. More people were be

coming wealthy and hence traveled more, dressed better, and had finer homes. Music and art were cultivated by the well-to-do as well as the rich. In 1812 $10,000 made a man "independent" and $20,000 was a "fortune." But by 1835 the standard had risen fourfold. Merchants, lawyers, and business men were laying the bases for enormous fortunes. John Jacob Astor was turning Alaskan furs into gold, Peter Cooper was making a fortune out of glue, and Alexander T. Stewart was becoming a merchant prince.

CHAPTER XXXIII. THE ALBANY REGENCY SUPREME

Politics in 1825-6.-While the state was rejoicing over the new life which had come from canals, mills, and the increased value of farm products, the " Albany Regency" was planning to win the coming state election. All Democrats were urged to unite against Clinton's Federal tendencies and practices, and victory crowned the efforts of the "Bucktail" opposition (Nov., 1825). The new legislature gave the people the right to elect justices of peace, and the voters ratified the act (1826). At the same time all restrictions to suffrage, save six months' residence, were removed. At Utica in the same year Clinton was unanimously renominated for governor (Sept. 21, 1826). The Democrats nominated Judge Rochester (Oct. 4), an Adams man, contrary to the wish of the Regency. Clinton was elected by a majority of 3,650 votes, but the Democrats chose the lieutenant-governor and controlled the legislature.

Van Buren was promptly re-elected senator, and he carried the state for Jackson (1827) and had him nominated for President the next year (1828). Clinton, however, also favored Jackson.

A Protective Tariff. The manufacturers, especially of woolens, were demanding protection against foreign goods. To select delegates to a general tariff convention at Harrisburg, Pa. (July 30, 1827), a meeting was held at Albany (July 17). The Democratic legislature passed resolutions in favor of a protective tariff on wool, hemp, flax, iron, woolens, and other products (Jan., 1828). Later a meeting was held at Buffalo, where

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spirited resolutions were adopted in favor of the protection of American manufacturers" (Nov., 1830). These were the beginnings of that great system of a protective tariff which has been such a prominent part of our national policy.

Death of Clinton. The unexpected death of Governor Clinton (Feb. 11, 1828) fell like a pall on the state. He was the greatest personal force of his age, the most prominent figure in New York politics, an honest, constructive statesman, who spent his life making New York the greatest state in the Union. He was a friend of popular education and of universal suffrage, and a warm patron of the sciences and arts. He was the creative genius of the system of canals. Too selfish and obstinate for a good party leader, factious and not adroit, committed to the degrading spoils system, bold, zealous, blunt, and cold, yet the people loved him and trusted his honor, high ideals, and integrity. He died a poor man, and the state had to provide for his family. His death removed the last obstacle to Van Buren's leadership.