ants. Buffalo was the third city in the state and numbered 118,000. Rochester, Syracuse, and Troy had doubled in size. Albany fell from the ninth to the twentieth place in the nation, though it had increased 20,000. Utica had grown 11,000 and Binghamton, Elmira, Yonkers, Long Island City, and Auburn had become important centers. Eight of the fifty chief cities in the United States were in New York. There were 159 villages in 1870, and the wealth of the state had increased more than six-fold and was $6,500,000,000.

Banks and Insurance Companies.-Prosperity can be measured by the number and character of the banks. The single savings bank of 1819 had grown to 155 with $285,300,000 in deposits (1873). This shows how thrifty the poorer people were. In 1876 there were 365 other banks in the state with $128,100,000 capital, $294,000,000 deposited, $42,300,000 in circulation, and $322,000,000 out in loans. The whole system was overlooked by a state bank department. Insurance companies grew with the banks. In 1860 there were 135, and in 1875 they numbered over 300. Life, fire, and marine insurance companies were followed by special companies for accidents, theft, live stock, cyclones, plate glass, and other purposes. The insurance department was created in 1859 and now controls the whole system. In the same year the first state convention of life-insurance companies was held in New York City, and in 1871 the first national convention convened.

Canals and Railroads.-The industrial development of this period was a continuation of the preceding one. The thirteen canals with the navigable rivers and lakes furnished 1,393 miles of waterway, on which in a year

5,800,000 tons of freight were carried at an expense of $4,336,000 and $2,550,000 in tolls (1874). But the canals were gradually replaced by faster means of transportation. The railroads had proved their value. for travel and freight traffic. The 2,700 miles at the beginning of the war had grown to 5,210 miles of steam railroads and 400 miles of horse-car lines (1875). The railroads carried 35,000,000 passengers at a cost of $25,000,000, and the horse-cars 228,000,000 at a cost of $12,000,000 (1874). The freight amounted to $65,000,000. This enormous business had been built up in less than half a century. In 1850 New York was first in railroads, but by 1860 she was only third, so rapidly were they built over the wide west.

Street-cars.—When the war began Brooklyn had 80 miles of street-car lines and New York City only 62 miles. As early as 1830 elevated railroads were discussed. As the metropolis grew rapid transit became a necessity. The New York Elevated Railroad Company and the Metropolitan Elevated Railroad Company were organized (1872). In 1879 two trunk lines were completed. To-day one can travel all around the great city. Brooklyn copied New York. Thousands of business men were thus enabled to live in healthy suburbs and still look after their business in the heart of the busy city.

The Industrial Establishments increased from 23,500 (1850) to 36,000 (1870), and the hands employed doubled. The money invested almost quadrupled. The value of products more than trebled and reached the sum of $785,000,000. The 352,000 persons thus employed were paid $142,000,000 in wages. The chief

manufacturing counties were, in the order named, New York, Kings, Rensselaer, Erie, Albany, Monroe, Onondaga, Oneida, Westchester, Oswego, Dutchess, Orange, and Ulster. From 1850 to 1860 New York led the states in making agricultural implements, engines, iron, books, sewing-machines, clothing, lumber, flour, malt liquors, leather, furniture, salt, gas, soap, and candles. She was second in making boots, shoes, woolen goods, and musical instruments. In 1870 she ranked first in manufacturing copper, war materials, furniture, paper, tobacco, farming tools, cheese, musical instruments, salt, maple sugar, and syrup. She stood second in producing brass, foods, iron, leather, liquors, lumber, books, clothing, carpets, flour, and woolen goods, and third in lead, nails, tacks, and silk. Averaging all products, New York led the country in manufacturing.

Agriculture. Farming was never a more desirable nor a more profitable occupation than during the period More than one-tenth of the people owned farm-lands, and 375,000 were engaged in this work (1870). There were 242,000 farms, and only 258 over 1,000 acres. Of the 25,660,000 acres in farms 15,900,000 acres were improved. The farms were valued at $1,221,500,000, the stock on them at $146,500,000, and the produce at $121,188,000 (1875). The crops had increased onethird. Of hay 5,500,000 tons were raised, of barley 5,000,000 bushels, of buckwheat 4,000,000, of corn 20,000,000, of rye 3,000,000, of wheat 10,000,000, of potatoes 37,000,000, and of apples 18,000,000. Of grapes 17,000,000 pounds were grown. Over 9,000,000 pounds of maple sugar, 219,000,000 pounds of butter, and 106,000,000 pounds of cheese were made. Of milk 41,

500,000 gallons were sold, and of wine 311,000. Large quantities of hops, poultry, and tobacco were raised. Swine, horses, and cattle increased in number 25 per cent, but sheep decreased. The markets were good and prices were high. Farmers became rich, built fine houses and barns, tilled their land, bred fancy kinds of stock, and sent their children to academies and colleges to be educated. Improved machinery made the work easier and gave more time for culture and travel. The country began to supply the cities with brain and muscle as well as food. From 1850 to 1860 New York led in farming, but since then other states have surpassed her.

Commerce, both domestic and foreign, kept pace with the general prosperity. More than 235,000 persons were engaged in transportation. The domestic exports from the port of New York amounted in 1856 to $99,000,000, and the foreign exports were $6,000,000. Twenty years later they were $295,000,000 and $14,000,000. The imports during the same time increased from $196,000,000 to $312,000,000. Work was plenty and wages were good. Probably at no time in the history of the state were all classes so busy and so well satisfied.

CHAPTER XLVIII.-SCHOOLS, CHURCHES, AND SOCIETY

Free Public Schools. This period saw a tremendous advance in education. The common schools were made free, and every boy and girl could be educated at the cost of the state (1867). The common schools were linked with the colleges by the formation of high schools in all the cities and large villages and by numerous academies. These secondary schools numbered 300 (1880). The colleges were increased and liberalized. Thus the great educational dream of De Witt Clinton was at last realized after many a hard and almost hopeless contest. For the masses there were 11,700 free common schools and 1,300 other institutions of learning (1870). The attendance had increased from 727,000 (1850) to 1,059,000 (1875), and 135,000 went to private schools. Still half a million of children of school age did not go to school.

Educational Progress.-Normal schools grew up gradually as the demand for trained teachers arose. They resulted from the teachers' institutes. The Albany Normal was the first (1844). Oswego soon followed, and before long six more were established. These were supported by the state and were free. The three colleges had become twenty-seven (1880). The girls were not neglected. Every city had one or more seminaries for them, and three colleges were exclusively for their use. At first education was held to be a family duty, but by this time the conviction prevailed that it was the state's duty to educate all boys and girls. This led to