the compulsory-education law, which went into effect January 1, 1875.

Newspapers and Libraries. The growing popular intelligence was marked by the rapid progress in papers and books. The 428 newspapers of 1850 changed in number to 835 in 1870. The 51 dailies had increased to 87; the 36 monthlies to 163; and the 308 weeklies to 518. The total circulation advanced from 1,625,000 to 472,000,000. These papers represented the whole range of human interests. Another evidence of enlarged intellectual activity was the growth in libraries. In 1870 there were 21,000 libraries of all kinds in the state with 6,300,000 books. There were 10,000 school libraries, 3,500 Sunday-school libraries, 144 circulating libraries, 130 city and village libraries, 26 law libraries, 2 state libraries, and numerous private libraries.

Post-offices. That great educator, the post-office, was perfected during this epoch. Up to 1845 there was little change in the rates. It cost six cents to send a letter of one sheet 30 miles, ten cents up to 80 miles, and twenty-five cents for 400 miles. If the letter had two, three, or four sheets the price was doubled, trebled, or quadrupled. Drop letters and newspapers in the state cost one cent. In 1835 New York paid $401,000 in postage. In 1845 a great change came. Letters of half an ounce were carried 300 miles for five cents, and beyond that the cost was double. Newspapers were carried free 30 miles, 100 miles for one cent, and beyond that for half a cent more. In 1851 the rate for a letter was reduced to three cents for 3,000 miles, and two-cent letter postage was introduced in 1883. Postage stamps were first used in 1847. The registration of

letters began in 1854, and free delivery and money orders originated in 1863.

The Religious and Moral Life of the people was not neglected. The Civil War was a great moral educator. Man's freedom became a sacred thing. Loyalty was holy. The antislavery movement was looked upon as a sacred warfare. Along with it and overclouded by it was the temperance crusade. Charity, mercy, and honor took a new hold on men. Churches increased from 4,134 (1850) to 6,320 (1875) with 1,147,000 members. The 43 sects paid $5,308,000 to ministers in salaries and owned buildings valued at $101,106,000. The Methodists had the largest number of houses of worship, then came Baptists, Presbyterians, and Roman Catholics. The Roman Catholics had the largest number of members, and were followed by the Methodists, Presbyterians, and Baptists. Mrs. Bethune's small Sunday-school (1816) soon expanded into 7,000, attended by 1,200,000 scholars and teachers (1888).

Prosperity and Intelligence.-The Civil War developed a love of country not known since the Revolution. Confidence in the national government was strengthened. Plenty of money, high bounties, and high prices for labor and products enabled the poor to pay off debts and become well-to-do. Shrewd merchants and bankers made large fortunes. There was an increased knowledge of local and national geography. Political science was better understood, and individual responsibility was realized as never before.

The Social Condition of the people was greatly improved. The railroads, canals, and telegraph lines united the people as one big family. Newspapers guided public

opinion more easily. People thought, read, and felt more. Man's equality was vindicated by war. Travel brought broad views and sympathy. Inventions made life easier and happier. The poor man in his humble home had more comfort than the rich a half-century before.

Emigration was becoming a serious problem, especially in the large cities. From the 50,000 foreigners who came to New York between 1790 and 1800 the numbers had grown to 1,427,000 during the ten years before 1850. The decade before the Civil War saw nearly 3,000,000 land at New York, and from there scatter over the nation. Nearly 26 per cent of the population of New York was foreign-born in 1860, but five years later only 14 per cent. After the war the inflow revived. The 400,000 aliens of 1865 coming into the state increased to 1,196,000 in 1875, or more than 150 per cent.

Character of Immigrants. The danger came not from the number of immigrants, but their character. Most of them were poor and ignorant. These foreigners also helped to swell the list of paupers and criminals. Many have become our very best citizens. The process of Americanizing them was very slow and in some cases discouraging. Fraudulent practices led to the formation. of a Board of Commissioners of Emigration (1849). Private Charity. The state institutions were supplemented by private ones. The first hospital was established in New York City (1770). From time to time others were built for the sick and disabled until every city had one or more. There were 49 in 1880. Orphan asylums, free dispensaries for the sick, homes for

soldiers and sailors, inebriates, and the aged, reform schools and farms, houses of refuge, and many other forms of charity grew up side by side with those founded by the state. A Board of State Commissioners of Public Charity was created to superintend the philanthropy of the state. Over $40,000,000 has been invested by the commonwealth for the unfortunates, and about $10,000,000 is spent annually.

Society. The paupers decreased from 60,000 (1850) to 26,000 (1870) in face of the great increase in population. But over three times as much money was spent for the care of the latter as for that of the former. Criminals changed in number from 10,280 to 5,500, of which 2,000 were foreigners. Here was a decided social gain. Illiteracy increased, due entirely to emigration. The Elmira Reformatory for making good men out of criminals was authorized (1869).

"The Year 1875 closed the first century of the great republic of the West." At Philadelphia, the birthplace of the nation, a grand centennial was held. New York made a magnificent display of her inventions, her factory, farm, and garden products, and her various other industries.

CHAPTER XLIX.-THE POLITICAL SITUATION

Seymour a Candidate for President.-In 1868 New York had another candidate for President, Horatio Seymour, a "favorite son," five times a nominee for governor and twice elected, who was nominated by the Democrats (July 4). The Republicans named U. S. Grant, the successful general of the recent war. Seymour worked with might and main in a hopeless contest against the popular hero. New York gave a solid vote to her favorite, but he was beaten by 214 to 80 electoral votes. Seymour never ran for public office again, but, like De Witt Clinton, devoted the rest of his life to the canals, topography, and history of the state he loved. He died at Utica (Feb. 12, 1886), lamented as a statesman, orator, writer, and, above all, citizen.

Governor Hoffman.-Seymour's popularity carried the Democrats into power again in the state. They elected as governor John Thompson Hoffman, a graduate of Union College (1846), a lawyer and politician, over John A. Griswold, the Republican candidate. Governor Hoffman was re-elected (1870), defeating Stewart L. Woodford by 33,000 majority. His administration was distinguished for his opposition to special legislation, his contention for "home rule" in cities, his effort to centralize the control of the canals, and to lengthen the term of supreme-court judges to fourteen years.

The Tweed Ring. The Democratic victory in New York led to charges of fraud, especially in New York City. The legislature was asked to interfere in behalf