When a Relational Verb is used with some part of another verb, merely to express tense, mood, or voice, it is an Auxiliary Verb.

He

Thus there are three kinds of Auxiliary Verbs— those of Tense, Mood, or Voice:-You WILL come. MAY go. He was injured.

A Participle is that part of a verb which partakes of the nature of a verb and an adjective:-A running stream. A defeated general. The changing seasons. Altered circumstances.

A Participial Substantive is one that partakes of the nature of a verb and a substantive:- Walking is healthy. Talking is forbidden. We learn drawing at school. The wounded are taken to the hospital. The fallen and the forsaken were the objects of his benevolence. All this arises from transgressing rules. Your having refused necessitates my going.

That part of the verb which is formed by the infinitive, preceded by the word to, and which may often be used instead of a participial substantive, is called the Supine: To walk is healthy. To be suspected is disagreeable.

6. Adverbs. An Adverb is a word which qualifies or limits some other word in a sentence with regard to time, place, manner, degree, etc.: frequently, there, well, exceedingly.

7. Prepositions.-A Preposition is a word which joins a substantive or pronoun to some other word, and governs that substantive or pronoun in the objective case-I wrote to her. We lived in London.

8. Conjunctions.-A Conjunction is a word which

connects sentences, and shows the relation between them :-John is here, and James is coming.

9. Interjections.-An Interjection is a word which stands apart from the construction of a sentence, and is thrown in merely to express sudden thought or emotion:-Oh! alas!

It should be remembered that every word in a sentence is not always a separate part of speech. A part of speech may consist of two or more words. This is very important in parsing, for in this exercise we parse separately every part of speech, not necessarily every word. The parts of speech which most frequently consist each of two or more words

are:

1. Participial Substantives.

Having been suspected is a disgrace.

His being accepted gives me encouragement.

2. Verbs.

I shall come.

We have gone.

They are about to remove.

You were sleeping.

3. Adverbs.

I will come at once.

He ran to and fro thrice.

In general he avoids such mistakes.

"When that the poor have cried, Cæsar hath wept."

4. Conjunctions.

It was unkind inasmuch as it was thoughtless.

I removed in order that you might have room.

NOTE. Before proceeding farther with our study, it will be well here to correct a very common error. Many people make a great mistake in reference to the so-called "Rules of Grammar," by regarding them as rules decided upon arbitrarily by grammarians, and therefore claiming authority to regulate the manner in which we ought to speak,

just as the laws of a country are made by its government, and have power to regulate the conduct of all those living in that country. This, however, is very incorrect. The grammarian does not make the rules of grammar, any more than a lawyer makes the laws upon which he is consulted. He deduces them from the customary modes of speaking, and then enunciates them, thus telling men not how they ought to speak, but how they do speak. That which makes and controls the rules of grammar, is custom (see page 131), and as custom changes, the rules change also.

Thus grammatical rules are not at all analogous to national laws, or to rules instituted for any purposes of government, but rather to natural laws, which are not made, but simply deduced from the common experience of all men, and then called laws.

The laws of a country are first made, and then obeyed; the laws of grammar are obeyed first, and originate in the obedience.

NOTE ON THE NAMES OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

Substantive, derived from the Latin sub-stans, standing under. This is in reality a metaphysical rather than a grammatical term, and denotes that which underlies (i. e. stands under, or supports) attributes. Its original meaning can best be seen by associating it with the word substance, which has the same etymology. We recognize a thing by the qualities which it presents to our senses; it was once taught that underlying and supporting (sub-stans) all these qualities was a something which was called the substance, in opposition to what were called attributes, qualities, or accidents. We cannot conceive qualities as existing by themselves, but only as inherent in what we call matter. Abstract qualities have only a subjective or intellectual exist

ence.

Thus we may say of an apple that it is large, and red, and sweet, and has a certain weight, but we cannot form any idea of the qualities largeness, redness, sweetness, weight, as having an existence apart from the apple or from some other material. The supposed substratum of these qualities of the apple was called the substance.

The word noun (derived from the Latin nomen, a name) is used to include two parts of speech, viz. :— substantives and adjectives, both of which are names.

Article, derived from the Latin articulus, a little joint. According to the derivation of the word, the articles ought to be the joining, or copulative words. The great change in the meaning of the term is most probably to be accounted for by supposing that this part of speech, which now includes only two words an (or a) and the, was originally made to include most of the relational words in a language, the function of the predominant number of which is to join other words together, and that in process of time many classes of words were taken away from them, and made into separate parts of speech, until at last the word article, losing its original signification, was retained for those two remaining words to which it was least appropriate.

Adjective, from the Latin adjectus, placed to; because an adjective is associated with a substantive or pronoun to add to it the notion of another quality.

Pronoun, so called because many pronouns stand for (Latin, pro) or instead of names. If we say, Mary told Henry that she wished him to bring her book from his table, we use the pronouns simply in the place of, or to represent the names Mary and Henry. If we did not use them we should be put to the trouble of saying,

Mary told Henry that Mary wished Henry to bring Mary's book from Henry's table.

Verb, from the Latin verbum, a word; so called because the verb is the word in every sentence, that is to say, not only the most important word, but the one essential word. We can easily compose a sentence containing no article, or no substantive, or no pronoun, etc., but it is impossible to make one which shall contain no verb.

Adverb, so called because many adverbs are joined with (Latin, ad, to) verbs, to limit or qualify them. The student will observe that this term is much too narrow, for it implies that adverbs can limit and qualify verbs only, whereas they can limit and qualify any part of speech except articles, conjunctions, and interjections. (See page 62.)

Preposition, from the Latin præ, positus, placed before; so called because the preposition is generally placed before the substantive or pronoun which it governs. This term also is inappropriate, for prepositions frequently follow the words they govern.

Conjunction, from the Latin conjunctio, a joining, so called because conjunctions join sentences together. The student will remember, however, that the conjunctions are not the only joining words in the language; many adverbs and pronouns are conjunctional in their character.

Interjection, from the Latin interjectus, thrown between; so called because interjections do not belong to the grammatical structure of sentences, but are thrown in between other words, to express sudden emotion or thought.

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