the Academy afforded him. This, however, was very scant, for we derive from Mr. Maclure's own letters the information that his and Mr. Say's daily expenses for food of each for a considerable length of time amounted to no more than the sum of six cents.

We note that Thomas Say, the father of American Entomology, was evidently less provident than his prototype Aristoteles, the founder of Natural Science. Aristoteles also had a drugshop, but he realized that neither in Athens nor anywhere else in those days was there money in Science; hence he ran the drugshop for a living. Aristoteles, the man behind the drug counter, and Aristoteles, the great writer, whose dictum was final with the scholars of the Middle Ages, were the same man. Old Socrates also knew that Philosophy didn't pay; he was a stone-cutter by trade, and he worked at it whenever his funds ran low. Plato peddled oil in Egypt; for he wasn't rich either.

The

But let us return to Philadelphia, the cradle of American Entomology. The works of Thomas Say are well known and need no further introduction; but his and all the writings up to this time were descriptive-the main object seemed to be to create new species. Biology was unknown. It seemed as if another era of apathy was approaching, were it not for the untiring zeal and interest of Melsheimer, Ziegler and Dr. LeConte, who, however, continued along the same line of study. There is no question that farms and forests, gardens and orchards have always suffered more or less injury from insect pests. There is no question that the majority of insects which are beneficial to mankind today have always been so. damage received from Insect Pests was considered as inevitable and accepted with stoic resignation; while the benefits derived from others were neither understood nor realized. It seems as if it was high time for an awakening in this direction, when, in 1841, Dr. W. T. Harris published his Report on the Insects of Massachusetts injurious to vegetation. This work is the foundation of our modern economic entomology; that is, the study of insects in relation to man, and marks the second milestone in American Entomological History. The need and appreciation of this work was clearly shown by the fact that a second edition was published in 1842; a third in 1852; a fourth in 1862, and I have a copy of an 1884 edition.

It is impossible now to go into detail of what was done in Economic Entomology after this, but there are certain names which cannot be omitted even in the briefest history, such as Dr. Asa Fitch, State Entomologist of New York, whose Reports, beginning with the year 1856, on noxious and

beneficial insects, contain a mass of information with which every reader in this field must familiarize himself. Equally important are the Reports of Charles V. Riley on noxious and beneficial insects of the State of Missouri, from 1869 to 1877, of which Dr. L. O. Howard says that they are monuments to the State of Missouri, and more especially to the man who wrote them; that they are the basis of the new Economic Entomology of the world.

When we consider that the American farmer loses about 10 per cent. of his crops annually from insect infestation, which is according to a conservative estimate by Walsh and Riley, about 300 million dollars, we realize what Prof. Webster said, that it costs the American farmer more to feed his insect foes than it does to educate his children. No wonder that since the time of Harris (about 75 years), the literature on this subject grew to phenomenal proportions. For, wherever there is a strong demand there will soon be a supply. At present there are over 500 periodicals which either wholly or in part treat on entomological subjects; and there are about 100,000 different works on entomology.

It is hard to find a landmark when Forest Entomology had its inception in this country, unless it is the year 1881, when the U. S. Entomological Commission published Bulletin 7 on insects injurious to forest and shade trees. This Bulletin reappeared revised and enlarged in 1890, as the 5th Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission on Insects affecting forest trees, by Alpheus S. Packard. Of this most excellent work only 2000 copies were printed, and it is now very difficult to obtain. Another most useful and well known work on this subject is the 59th Report of the New York State Museum, Volumes III. and IV., published at Albany, 1905, by Dr. Felt, State Entomologist of New York.

If we accept the figures of experts who a few years ago estimated the annual loss of forests in the United States from insect depredations at not less than one hundred million dollars-it seems to be high time the spirit should move this country into similar action, as it recently did in building bird-boxes, which, by the way, is surely a hopeful beginning.

Until now, Economic Forest Entomology has been a very neglected branch with us, while in Europe, and especially in Germany, much attention has been given to it for nearly a century past. The most important works on this subject which should be consulted by students are those of Dr. Ratzeburg of Berlin, 1839, Kaltenbach. Perris, Taschenberg, Eichoff, Nordlinger, Henschel, Iudeich and Nitsche.

Our forest trees harbor enormous numbers of insects, not alone in specimens, but also in species. Thus, over 500 species of insects are injurious to our oaks, over 250 feed on birches, about the same number are found on poplar and willow, and over 150 on beech. Our conifers harbor over 325 species. There is not a part of a tree which is immune from the attacks of some insect. With the wood-borers the trouble does not end here, it is simply the beginning of the second stage, when fungi enter old insect galleries and finish the work of destruction. On lawns and in orchards spraying methods are applicable; but in the forest, besides clean culture, the judicious handling of fire and the axe are the principal weapons against insect pests.

Last, but not least, we come to a branch of Economic Entomology which deals with health and welfare of the human body. Medical Entomology. I have already referred to a time of history when least known and the need of it was greatest; when many millions of human beings suffered and perished from diseases, the causes of which were unknown, when help and relief was expected by penance and supplication-but of no avail.

Just a few words from Dr. Victor C. Vaughn's interesting essay on "The Services of Medicine to Civilization": "The Greek developed the most glorious civilization of antiquity because he was the most ardent student of science; but he was unable to cope with malaria and bubonic plague, and his descendants have been in bondage to malaria for nearly twenty-four centuries. The medicine of Hippocrates, the wisdom of Socrates, the philosophy of Plato, the plays of Aristophanes, the laws of Pericles and the science of Aristoteles, could not save the Greek from the degrading effects of disease; and under its withering influence the civilization of this great people slowly but surely decayed." Of the Roman EmOf the Roman Empire the same writer has this to say: "If one reads the history of the decline of the Roman Empire, he can hardly fail to see that disease was an important factor in that retrograde movement which involved the greater part of the then known world."

We know today that nearly all diseases, either bacterial or protozoan, which left deep scars on our civilization, are carried and transmitted by insects. Malaria, as is well known, is a protozoan disease, a plasmodium which is carried by mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. Plague or Black Death is a bacterial disease caused by Bacillus pestis, and is carried and transmitted by fleas. Leprosy is caused by the Bacillus lepra, and insects and mites are suspected as carriers. Elephantiasis is caused by nematodes, transmitted by

mosquitoes; sleeping sickness is caused by protozoans, carried by the tsetse fly; typoid fever is caused by the Bacillus typhosus, disseminated principally by house flies, etc. Speaking of the house-fly, let me give you a few interesting facts. It carries and disseminates typhoid fever, cholera, tuberculosis, enteritis, bubonic plague, anthrax, leprosy, small-pox, Asiatic cholera, dysentery, cholera morbus, infantile paralysis, etc. A most formidable record for such a small culprit.

In the light of modern research most of these diseases have lost their terror to mankind. Remedies were certainly known before. With the discovery of cinchona bark, which was first employed when the Spaniards arrived in South America, and which was first imported into Europe about 1639, malaria was no longer a deadly disease. Sulphate of quinine, the specific of malaria, was discovered in 1840 by a French army surgeon; but discoveries like these did not explain the cause of the diseases, hence could not indicate their prevention.

Small-pox, though not an insect-borne disease, and besides very little understood, may be mentioned here on account of the method of prevention. The discovery of vaccination against small-pox was accidental. A country woman consulted Dr. Jenner about some ailment. In course of conversation the physician suggested that she may have small-pox. Oh, no! that could not be, the woman answered, because I once had cow-pox. This started Dr. Jenner on a series of experiments, and he soon discovered that persons who had cow pox were immune from small-pox. His investigations were first published in 1789, and this dreadful disease was soon brought under control.

It remained largely for the present century that the human race was enlightened of the true nature of these diseases, and the living organisms which caused all the mischief were made visible through stains and the microscope. Great events often cast their shadows before; thus we find that as early as 1718 Lancini held that mosquitoes might carry poisonous substances into the bodies of people; but it took two centuries to prove it.

Manson's work on filaria transmission by mosquitoes had the effect to stimulate many workers in this field of research. In 1880, Laveran, a French army surgeon found the parasite of malaria. Similarly, Dr. Charles Finlay of Havana, claimed for some years that yellow fever was transmitted by mosquitoes. He did not prove it by experiments, and his assertions were ridiculed and finally lost sight of. But in the year 1900, during the American occupation of Cuba, the Yellow Fever Commission, under Dr. Walter Reed,

began to conduct a series of experiments, and after two years of work it was found that Finlay's assertions were correct.

These illustrations of the work of insect-borne diseases, the latest branch of applied Entomology show the marvelous possibilities of a science which is practically a present century creation. The revelation of the minutest forms of biological objects, with their complex life-histories, is destined to prop up the intricate meshwork of human civilization, and save it from a fate of former experiences.

When civilization is threatened again, it will be neither through ignorance or disease; it will be through human insincerity and greed under a plausible cloak; but most likely that of humanity.

CHIPS.

V. A. E. DAECKE.

Out of a list of forty-four States, Pennsylvania stands as number eighteen with a lumber cut of nearly a billion board measure feet in 1915; as against Washington and Louisiana each with nearly four billion feet cut.

Carlos Bates, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 788, p. 14-15, U. S. Department of Agriculture, estimates (without counting cost of planting) that the average annual income of the following species of trees per acre when planted as wind-breaks on the farm is: cottonwood in rows and belts, from $2.64 to $8.01; willow on moist land, from $4.17 to $15.81; green ash on good soil, from $2.53 to $6.51; honey locust on good soil as posts, from $1.00 to $5.42; osage orange ranges for posts from $3.94 to $12.51, according to soil; Russian mulberry ranges for posts from $8.00 to $30.00, but can't stand severe cold.

Forester Samuel T. Dana, in April Munsey's Magazine, gives a graphic statement of the rise and fall of Cross Forks, which was once a noted lumber centre in Pennsylvania. Its population went out when the lumber was gone "and was reduced in four years from two thousand to sixty one. The land passed into possession of the State, and under care of the Forestry Department the slow process of restoration of the region to a productive condition has been commenced."

A ROYAL WELCOME AWAITS YOU— DON'T MISS IT,

AT THE PITTSBURGH MEETING OF THE PENNSYLVANIA FORESTRY ASSOCIATION JUNE 21ST, 22ND, 23RD.

EVERY DAY IMPORTANT!

The Forestry Branch of the Department of the Interior, Canada, publishes A Roll of Honor, containing the names of its employees who had enlisted for active service up to November 30th, 1916. There were fifty-five names on the list. There is no doubt about the account they will give of themselves!

It is but a few years since we were told that we had the inexhaustible timber supply of Canada to draw upon when our own timber was gone. The Canadian Director of Forestry is skeptical about it! He quotes "That the timber saved from fire and created by better methods of exploitation will have its effect on future supplies cannot be doubted; that it will in any sense overstock or satisfy the market, your Commissioners do not believe."

February Journal of Forestry, p. 244, reports that of 2,000 trees struck by lightning, the species most frequently struck is chestnut, then follow pitch pine, rock oak, white pine, hemlock, red oak, white oak, black oak, locust, sugar maple."

It costs to dispose of waste matters due to lumbering in the United States yearly about $6,000,ooo!

Blight-proof, nut-producing chestnut trees are now reported as available. They do not, however, seem to be valuable for timber, which is much more important than the nuts.

Quoting from American Forestry of March:"The popularity of the National Forests as summer playgrounds is increasing by leaps and bounds each year. These vacation wonderlands were visited by over 2,000,000 people in 1916. Of this number Colorado received 605,000, or 30 per cent. of the total." Take notice Pennsylvania !

Nineteen seventeen is Locust year for western Pennsylvania.

"Keep the crowns of young trees free to the sunlight. Let low-growing brush and weeds alone. They stimulate height growth and shade the ground."-From The Forest Planters' Guide of the D. Hill Nursery Co., Dundee, Ill.

In 1914-15, Canada imported for structural purposes, southern pine valued at $1,608,788. During the same period Canada exported coniferous woods valued at only $389, 164.

Douglas fir timber, 46 by 46 inches square and 70 feet long, is used in Montreal for harbor work.