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owned by the State is suitable for any other than a crop of trees. In the hands of private parties, it would be not only a loss, but even a menace to the State, and from the nature of the case, while, in many instances, an individual might make a profit, it is the State's duty to look after the community's interest, rather than that an individual should. An individual may grow small timber, but he cannot be expected to expend his energies upon a crop which will not mature for a century or more. Under State control the forest will yield its largest revenue.

Under proper forestry management, the forest canopy and forest floor are regulated in the best way possible to have the forest serve its role as a water conservator. The ground is not allowed to dry out so rapidly, and the water more easily reaches the lower strata of the soil and comes out in perpetual springs, which will not only supply the streams with a constant volume of water, but will also furnish the purest of water for the cities. Under these conditions, too, the game, birds and fish are more easily protected and increased.

As recreation grounds for the people, the reserves must be considered æsthetically. It is not customary for a physician to prescribe any gloomy and unattractive room for a patient, nor is it to be supposed that an unattractive forest has much effect upon the mind of the visitor. All the State reserves are reached by railroads, and a number of them already present attractive locations for camps, and from many points magnificent views. As the forestry work is extended, and the hills are once more forest-clad, the reserves will become more attractive and, with the extension of roads and trails, more easily accessible. To-day, there are no better places for sufferers from pulmonary troubles than the Delaware, Hopkins and South Mountain reservations.

On the latter reservation, at Mont Alto, there is now a park almost twenty-five years old, and one that equals any in central Pennsylvania. It

is about a mile long, with the whole reservation back of it. There could be none better for a day's excursion. Unfortunately, there is no opportunity for a stay of more than a day, but it is to be hoped that this will soon be changed. The Cumberland Valley Railroad enters this park, making it accessible from all parts of the State. Only in a few instances would it be necessary to make any extra expenditures for park purposes, and yet, at times, it may be very advisable.

Thus it can be seen that, while the State has many interests to be considered in the formation of reserves, all these interests can be best subserved when the reserves are managed from a purely business basis. GEORGE H. WIRT,

State Forester.

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The formation of the Natural Bridge and of the gorge of Cedar Creek is considered to be as follows: Cedar Creek was engaged for a considerable period in excavating the ravine in the peneplain from the James River (which had lowered its channel through the Blue Ridge) to a point not far below the present site of the bridge, where a fall appears to have existed, the summit of which was not far, if at all, below the present level of the top of the bridge. About this time, the water found a subterranean passage in the limestone further up the stream than the present site of the bridge, and through this it flowed and discharged beneath the brink of the falls. passage gradually enlarged until all the waters of the creek passed through it and the bridge began its existence. What the length of this subterranean passage was is a matter of conjecture; it may have been one hundred or several hundred feet. All of its roof has disappeared except the narrow span of the bridge, and the abutting walls have been worn back by erosion until the gorge or cañon is much wider than at the bridge. bridge is massive and strong, and the supporting walls rise in solid, almost unbroken, mural faces to the spring of the arch, nearly two hundred feet above the bed of Cedar Creek.

The

The position of the massive layers of limestone at the center of the low synclinal gives them power to resist erosion to a much greater extent than the upturned strata above and below the bridge. The condition of the latter favors rapid disintegration, and the result is shown in the widening of the gorge. The retreating lower level of the stream is now at Lace Falls, nearly a mile above the bridge. The gorge below the bridge widens out more rapidly, owing partly to the erosion caused by a small brook that enters from the north, partly to a greater period of erosion to which it has been subjected. On the northern side, opposite Pulpit Rock, about twenty feet west of the public road, the summit of the bridge is two hundred and thirty-six feet above the water, and this part of the arch has a thickness of forty-four feet and a span of from forty-five to sixty feet. The

* Walcott, Charles D., "The Natural Bridge of Virginia," National Geographic Magazine, v., 1893, p. 59.

western edge is about ten feet higher, and the eastern edge about ten feet lower, than the central point.

The slopes, or sides of the cañon, as well as the summit, are covered with a forest of some denseness. The forest, speaking ecologically, belongs to the Mixed Deciduous Forest Formation, characteristic of the southern Appalachian mountain ranges. At only one point, that at the elbow of Cedar Creek above the bridge, where the stream, departing from its general southeastern course, runs due north and south, is this character of the forest departed from. Here, in the alluvial soil deposited at the elbow, is found a pure hemlock forest, forming the Hemlock Association of the ecologist. Beneath the dense shade of the hemlock tree, which is here dominant, the botanist finds on the ground Mitchella repens, L., the partridge berry, which here, as elsewhere, is tolerant of the dense shade cast by the crown of the hemlock trees. Occasionally associated with the hemlocks, as secondary species, because they are tolerant of shade, the forester finds the beech, Fagus ferruginea, Ait.; the dockmackie, Viburnum acerifolium, L., and the witch hazel, Hamamelis Virginiana, L.

The dominant trees of the Mixed Deciduous Forest Formation will be referred to as they are found on the north or south slopes of the gorge. In general, the sunlight has full influence on the vegetation of the north bank, while the south bank is so steep that the sunlight, if it reaches the soil at all, does so at an angle, and, consequently, its full effect is lost on the plants of the south and shaded side. The dominant forest trees of the south side of Cedar Creek consist of tulip poplar, Liriodendron tulipifera, L.; sugar maple, Acer saccharinum, Wang.; hemlock, Tsuga Canadensis, Carr; walnut, Juglans nigra, L.; Hicoria, Sp.; the beech, Fagus ferruginea, Ait.; scarlet oak, Quercus coccinea, Wang.; red elm, Ulmus fulva, Michx.; ash, Fraxinus, Sp.; chestnut oak, Quercus Prinus, L.; arbor vitæ, Thuja occidentalis, L.; red oak, Quercus rubra, L.; linden, Tilia Americana, L. As secondary trees, somewhat tolerant of the shade, are found red mulberry, Morus rubra, L.; witch hazel, Hamamelis Virginiana, L.; Judas tree, Cercis Canadensis, L.; sassafras, Sassafras officinale, Nees. Forming a third and lower stratum of vegetation, the writer noted the dockmackie, Viburnum acerifolium, L.; Viburnum pubescens, Pursh, and Sassafras officinale, Nees. Near the bridge and extending up stream on the south side for a distance of a hundred yards is a tumbled mass of limestone rocks, which the writer believes may be looked upon as part of the fallen-in roof

of the cavern which geologists tell us existed here.* Among these rocks, which are mossgrown and lichen-covered, the following herbs live in the shade of the dominant forest trees: yellow puccoon, Hydrastis Canadensis, L.; wood nettle, Laportea Canadensis, Gaud.; wild ginger, Asarum Virginicum, L.; Indian turnip, Arisaema triphyllum, Jorr.; walking fern, Camptosorus rhizophyllus, Link; Christmas fern, Aspidium acrostichoides, Schwartz; may apple, Podophyllum peltatum, L. (not abundant); blood root, Sanguinaria Canadensis, L.; Viola pubescens, Ait. var. scabriuscula, Torr & Gray; Viola Canadensis, L., and Euphorbia commutata, Engelm. Two funguses grow on the rotten logs here, viz., Peziza coccinea and Caprinus comatus, Fr. The summit of the south hill along the flatter levels above supports the white pine, Pinus Strobus, L., which is scattered throughout the deciduous forest on this side of the cañon. The sycamore, Platanus occidentalis, L.; the white pine, Pinus Strobus, L.; the butternut, Juglans cinerea, L.; the water beech, Carpinus Caroliniana, Wal ter, are trees found along and on both sides of the stream.

L.;

The dominant trees of the north or sunny bank are the swamp white oak, Quercus bicolor, Willd. ; the tulip poplar, Liriodendron tulipifera, L.; the hemlock, Tsuga Canadensis, Carr; the sugar maple, Acer saccharinum, Wang.; the black walnut, Juglans nigra, L.; the beech, Fagus ferruginea, Ait.; the hackberry, Celtis occidentalis, L.; the chestnut oak, Quercus Prinus, L., and the arbor vitæ, Thuja occidentalis, L. (nearly three feet in diameter). The undergrowth consists of the witch hazel, Hamamelis Virginiana, L.; the dockmackie, Viburnum acerifolium, L. ; Viburnum pubescens, Pursh.; the sassafras, Sassafras officinale, Nees, while the Virginia creeper, Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Michx., is a liane hanging from the dominant forest trees. The herbaceous plants of the forest on the north side of Cedar Creek are Verbesina occidentalis, Walt. ; Chrysogonum Virginianum, L. var. dentatum, Gray; Impatiens fulva, Nutt.; Cicimifuga racemosa, Nutt; Asarum Canadense, L.; Eupatorium perfoliatum, L.; Galium triflorum, Michx.; Equisetum hyemale, L.; Heuchera Americana, L.; Hepatica triloba, Chaix; Sanguinaria Canadensis, L.; Mitella diphylla, L., and Mitchella repens, L. The rock faces, exposed on the north side to the sun, support Heuchera villosa, Michx. ; Viola striata, Ait.; Verbascum Thapsus, L., and Sedum Nevii, Gray. The rock-faces, or walls of the bridge proper, are decked with a variety of

* See ante.

herbs, among which the writer noted Allium tricoccum, Ait.; Aquilegia Canadensis, L.; Anemone Virginiana, L.; Solea concolor, Ging.; Triosteum perfoliatum, L.; and Sedum Nevii, Gray. The summit-margin of the gorge on the north side is characterized by the admixture of the red cedar, Juniperus Virginiana, L.; scrub pine, Pinus inops, Ait.; and linden, Tilia Americana, L.; while the arbor vitæ, Thuja occidentalis, L., hangs out of clefts in the perpendicular rock-faces at the bridge.

This tree, the arbor vitæ, is the most noteworthy tree growing at the Natural Bridge of Virginia. It is distributed from Nova Scotia to the shores of James Bay and Lake Winnipeg, and southward through the northern States and along the Allegheny mountains to southern Virginia. At the Natural Bridge, therefore, it reaches its southern limit, or, as the writer would prefer to put it, the seat of its original home, being distributed northward in post-glacial times. Below the arch at the Natural Bridge, and along the small stream coming from the north and emptying into Cedar Creek, several trees are found which reach a diameter of three feet and over. These trees have passed their prime and are showing signs of old age. Several facts are clearly evident from a study of the forest which occupies the gorge at the Natural Bridge. One of these facts is, that the forest is younger than the gorge, and the second is, that the forest has had a developmental history. In all probability, after the disappearance of the limestone roof from the top of the gorge, a xerophytic vegetation occupied the slopes and hills about it, because the soil was still formed only partially by the disintegration of the rocks and by the action of the stream in the deposit of silt. Gradually, however, the vegetation adapted to dry situations was replaced by trees, shrubs and herbs adapted to a moister soil and to a greater degree of shade. A mesophytic forest, therefore, replaced a xerophytic one, and, at the present time, the mesophytes predominate, although, as we have noted, the xerophytic character of vegetation is found, to some extent, on the sunny and drier slopes of the northern side of the ravine. As erosion occurs, and the soil is removed from the underlying rocks, a xerophytic forest may again replace the mesophytic one now found in the gorge.

These observations are presented as, in part, a contribution to the problems which confront the American forester, when he studies any forested area from a practical ecologic standpoint. Prof. Fernow makes a plea for the more adequate com

Fernow, B. E., "Applied Ecology," Science, n. s., xvii., April 17, 1903, p. 605.

prehension of ecology as an applied art. He argues that the practitioner is especially interested in definite knowledge regarding particular species in their adaptations to particular conditions; he needs knowledge of the "silvicultural requirements" of species, which is, and has been for a hundred years his term for ecology. The silviculturist desires to know the stable and variable factors which influence his crop. The stable factors he recognizes are soil and climate; the variable factors are certain climatic conditions, plant and animal associates and light. Physical conditions of the soil, especially with reference to water-conductivity and water-storage capacity, are the more important edaphic factors. On the other hand, almost the whole art of the silviculturist is based on the recognition of the photic adaptations of the different species. The relative tolerance or endurance of light among the tree species within a given climatic range is probably the most important ecologic factor which determines the character of any forest association. "The tolerant, if adapted to climate and soil, must ultimately drive out or reduce in number the intolerant, or light-needing, even though perfectly adapted to climate and soil. This accounts for the sporadic occurrence, in the mixed maplebeech-hemlock-spruce forest, of such light-needing species as the black cherry, the ash, the elm. It accounts for the existence of the most intolerant bald cypress or larch in the swamps, where their competitors could not follow. It accounts for the change of forest type, under the influence of man, the alternation of species observed on burns and slashings.'

The writer, recognizing, therefore, that an ecologic study of the relative shade endurance of our important species is the most important need of the forester, has attempted to present briefly the results of his studies in this direction by a consideration of the forests at the Natural Bridge of Virginia. In a paper, to be published shortly, a more detailed and more exhaustive treatment of this subject will be presented, as it deals with the forests in the mountainous region of western North Carolina. Those interested in this subject will find a statement of the author's views in a forthcoming number of The Botanical Gazette. JOHN W. HARSHBERGER,

University of Pennsylvania.

Failures in tree-planting, aside from natural causes, such as high winds and intense sunlight, are due, chiefly, to a lack of care in planting and cultivating, and a lack of knowledge of what kinds of trees to plant.

Forestry Work at Mont Alto.

THIS

HIS spring the forest nursery at Mont Alto was enlarged, and about fifteen pounds of white-pine seed sown. Also some catalpa seed, and two pounds of red-spruce seed were sown. On April 3d, about 800 two-year old white pines were set out into the plantation. Later, 800 more were planted. About 3000 small, two-year old seedlings were transplanted in the nursery. The seeds which were sown last spring and those sown last fall are now coming up nicely. Some Some acorns planted in the fall are sprouting fairly well. All the beds have been covered with pine-needles, to hold the moisture and to keep down weeds. Slat shades will be put up for protection from sun during the summer.

The plantation which was started last spring is doing very well, only about 10 per cent. of original number of plants set out having died.

At the consumptive sanatorium, about three acres of pines have been pruned, and now some pulp-wood is being taken out. From several places on the reservation considerable cord-wood has been disposed of.

The park has just been put in shape for the summer season, at the expense of the C. V. R. R., under the direction of the superintendent of the reservation.

The site of the old furnace-buildings is just about cleaned up, and will soon be ready for ivy vines and trees. G. H. W.

A Well-Merited Compliment.

HE following resolution was passed by the

THE

don, be hereafter designated, known and named as "The Rothrock Forestry Reservation," in recognition of the faithful service rendered the State in the establishment of this and other State Forestry Reservations by our President, Dr. J. T. Rothrock.

On motion of Mr. Brown, it was Resolved, That the Chair be authorized to have kept correct accounts of all moneys which may be paid into the State treasury for sale of timber, lease of minerals, etc., and which, under act approved 15th of April, 1903, are to be available for the purpose of assisting in defraying the necessary expenses of protecting and improving said lands or for the purchase of additional lands;" and to make reports to the commission of the amount of funds which are available for purposes indicated.

"The State Forestry Reservation in Juniata, Huntingdon and Mifflin Counties, through which flows Licking Creek, has been named "Rothrock Forestry Reservation.' Many times, when Dr. Rothrock was a boy attending school at Academia, he walked across the hills and mountains from school on Saturdays to his home in McVeytown, and when he returned he always had with him specimen ferns and other blades of grass and twigs of brushes and trees, all of which gave evidence of his botanical taste. The boy in his case was father of the man-the distinguished botanist that he now is. The forest he then walked through to and from his home to school is now the Rothrock Forestry Reservation."-Sentinel and Republican.

Michigan.

State Forestry Reservation Commission, A Forestry Course at the University of and after it is inserted an editorial comment from the Sentinel and Republican, of Mifflintown, Pa.

We are sure all our readers will be pleased to note this recognition of Dr. Rothrock's services.

WHEREAS, A forestry reservation has been established in the Counties of Mifflin, Juniata and Huntingdon, through which flows the waters of Licking Creek; and

WHEREAS, A part of the land embraced within this reservation were those which were at one time owned by the President of this Commission, and over which he hunted and fished from his boyhood to manhood, and who in every way exerted his utmost efforts to protect the growing forests thereon; therefore, be it

Resolved, That the Forestry Reservation, now established along and adjacent to Licking Creek, in the Counties of Mifflin, Juniata and Hunting

in

MONG the new and practical courses now

being given at the University of Michigan

is that of forestry. The course is technical character, and open only to graduate students. It properly requires six years, including the four years undergraduate work, although it may be possible to complete it in five. Thus far, some twenty-three students have decided to take up the work. Arrangements for a laboratory have been. made in West Hall. Material for the practical study of the scientific and commercial sides of forestry is being gathered, and will be grown in the University's new botanical gardens. The H. M. Loud Sons Company has kindly extended the privileges of its lumber camps about Oscoda, Mich., and permanent arrangements for field-work will soon be made. A forestry club is also to be

organized. Charles A. Davis, instructor in forestry, has been working all summer in and about the State, studying especially the local conditions. Two courses of instruction are being given this year. One is a synoptical review of the science and the other is a course treating of the laws controlling the development of trees and forests and their application in methods of improving, treating and reproducing forest crops. Other courses that have been planned are: (1) a study of trees and shrubs, their identification, structure, development, relationship, distribution and uses; (2) forest mensuration.

TH

Levees and Reforestation.

HE spring rise in the Mississippi River is subsiding, leaving behind it many broken levees and much land overflowed. The property destroyed is not so large in amount as has happened in some previous years, but it is large enough, and the breaks in the levees are numerous enough to seriously weaken the confidence of the people of the Mississippi Valley in this method of protection from floods.

The encouraging fact in the situation is that the spring rise of this year appears to have brought a realizing sense of the weak points of the levee system to the dwellers along the Mississippi River. The Memphis Scimeter says: "What is troubling the people of Memphis and many other cities situated on the tributaries of the great river is the result of continued high levees. The higher the levees and the more that are built, the higher the water will be forced up into the tributary streams. The levees tend to gorge the water in the river and make artificially high stages, and the outcome of the next spring flood is anxiously watched for." This is exactly the point which has been persistently pressed upon the Mississippi Valley States and which has been just as persistently ignored by them. Past experience shows that the bed of a river rises by the deposit of silt when it is closely confined within its banks, and the embankments that enclose it must be constantly raised also.

But there is a limit to which this method can be carried, and a sense of the folly of tempting the fate, which trusting wholly to the levees is sure to bring, seems to have been gained from this year's flood. There is more willingness to listen to a discussion of the merits of reforestation and to encourage efforts in that way. This change of sentiment is a distinct advance in solving the problem of the Mississippi River floods. Had the triple plan of levees, dams and reforestation been undertaken thirty years ago, the situation would be under control to-day. It was in 1882 that a national appropriation for the control of the Mississippi

River was first made. In the twenty-one years since, $27,000,000 have been spent on levees, of which the general Government has furnished $12,000,000. If half this sum had gone to reforest the lands around the head-waters of the streams that feed the Mississippi River and in building dams where practicable, the situation. would be much more encouraging than it is now.

The Mississippi River problem is a national problem. It must be worked out on broad, general principles. But, hitherto, the Lower Mississippi Valley States have insisted that they alone should be left to solve the problem, but at the same time they demanded national aid in doing it. And the only plan they would listen to was the levee plan. If they are now convinced of their error and of the help that can be obtained from other plans, a long step has been taken toward the solution of a difficult task, and the end of disastrous overflows of the Mississippi River is in sight.-Philadelphia Press.

New Publications.

A New Method of Turpentine-Orcharding. Bulletin No. 40, of the Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 43 pages, 8mo. Illustrated.

This monograph has been prepared by Dr. Charles H. Herty, treating of the present method of turpentine-orcharding, describing the box system, with its evils, the necessary requirements of an improved system, the new cup-and-gutter system, which he advocates, together with tables of the results obtained from the two systems. From the thorough experiments thus far made, the cup-and-gutter system has yielded a much larger return in turpentine and rosin (from about one-quarter more upward) over the box system in both first, second, third and fourth years, and particularly in the latter years. The product of rosin is also said to be improved. The increased yield is attributed to the fact that the vitality of the tree is not as much injured by the cup-and-gutter system as by boxing, although eventually destroyed. It would seem that the new system has much merit and should be generally adopted. Fifteen plates and five text-figures aid in an understanding of the report.

Sixteenth Annual Report of the Interstate Commerce Commission. Washington, D. C. 12mo., 352 pages. Bound in cloth.

This report was made to the Senate and House of Representatives for the year ending June 30, 1902, and treats of the amendments to the Laws in Regard to Interstate Commerce, Decisions of the Commission, Court Decisions, Railway Statistics, etc., for the year mentioned.

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