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Lightning-Discharge.

IGHTNING often strikes trees, and specially such as stand singly or overtop their surroundings.

The consequences of this striking are different, not only affecting the exterior appearance, but also influencing the tree-life. In many cases only a narrow strip of bark is cut off, and the tree continues to grow without trouble, recovering the damaged area, as the oaks are doing; in other cases when so damaged, the trees, especially the conifers, die more or less. Sometimes there is an entire barking of the trees struck by lightning, and frequently the trees are split and more or less splintered.

A strange feature is the springing of the lightning from one tree to the other, causing the gradual dying of a large number of trees in the vicinity of a tree struck by lightning; this is specially true in spruce and fir forests.

Lightning is often the cause of forest fires when it strikes dry or dead trees. No species of wood is exempt from lightning-discharge, but, as a rule, some suffer more than others. Oak, poplar, white pine and spruce are most frequently struck, while the beech is seldom damaged, and that species is considered as "lightning-proof."

PAUL E. ARNOLD.

In the delayed May number of the Forestry Quarterly we find an interesting discussion of methods of reproducing white pine,-Mr. S. B. Elliott of the Pennsylvania Commission contributing "The Minnesota Experiment," and Dr. B. E. Fernow comments on the same. The so-called experiment is the management of the 200,000 acres of pine land to be selected by the U. S. Forest Service from the Chippewa Indian Reservation in northern Minnesota. The rules formulated by the service for the cutting and reproduction of this timber provide that 5 per cent. of all pine trees shall be left, and that all pine trees under a certain size shall not be molested.

Mr. Elliott, after hinting at the unwisdom of cutting these 1,000,000,000 feet of timber in the face of a certain rise in the market, goes on to question the propriety of this natural method of reproduction by leaving seed trees. He assumes the substantial resemblance of the pine forest under discussion to those that once existed farther east. The dense, even aged stand of white pine that the Pennsylvania lumberman worked in was quickly ruined, even though in the earlier fellings only the largest trees were removed-the changed conditions proving fatal to the survivors. Besides, natural conditions prevent a full seeding of the

ground, so that at best only a partial yield can be secured, and this, owing to the greater struggle in the natural forest, only after 150 years, as against 100 or 120 years, where planting is resorted to. The conclusion is that, although this method is a compromise with a tardy public opinion, it is likely to result in failure.

Dr. Fernow, with the advantage of having been on the ground about a year after the paper above referred to was prepared, takes up the questions involved in it and discusses them from the foresters' standpoint. As to the best silvicultural method in any given case, even in Germany, with over 100 hundred years' experience, foresters are not agreed. In our present undeveloped state any system not demonstrably bad is desirable. The reserve in Minnesota includes red pine lands, jack pine lands, white pine lands and the mixed pine lands. The work done, in the first type only, looks like the Scotch pine areas in Germany, where natural regeneration is still practiced. The 5 per cent. of seed trees means about six per acre, and the brush is burned unnecessarily clean, and there is enough two- to five-year-old volunteer growth to insure its being filled out by the seed trees. With the white pine, where the seed trees will be only three to the acre, and where the struggle with hardwood species will be more severe, the results will vary. In the 5 per cent. reservation has been kept simply the possibility of a natural regeneration. By regulating the time of cutting to suit the seed years, and by the judicious and timely use of fire, a greater degree of success would be insured. The success of this or of any forest problem depends upon a manager.

"To think that a general prescription will secure a satisfactory regeneration, except by a lucky combination of conditions, is to expect that by putting a brush and a paint-box into a greenhorn's hands a masterpiece will result. All that has been done in the reservation of seed trees is to prevent the spilling of the paint-box, and that, to be sure, is needful for the coming painter.' But as to the definite question of clearing and planting as against natural regeneration, the compelling argument in favor of the latter method in this country is that at present the increased cash outlay at first, with the great fire risk and low stumpage values, makes planting practically impossible.

It is interesting to note the result of burning the brush in this and other operations. The cost has varied from $1.00 to $2.50 or $3.00 (in hardwoods) per acre. Some of the companies logging on the Chippewa Reserve propose to extend the practice to their own operations, for the protection it furnishes. A. S. H.

Forestry in the Japanese Empire.

THE

HE Imperial Bureau of Forestry, Department of Agriculture and Commerce, of the government of Japan, has prepared a pamphlet entitled Forestry and Forest Products of Japan. This publication shows the extent and character of the forests of Japan and their products in a complete manner.

The forest administration of Japan is regulated by the forest law" of 1897, which provides the rules regarding the working of the available forests as well as the restriction of felling in the reserve forests, with other matters connected therewith. The execution of the forest law is carried on by the local governments and at the same time is placed under the surveillance of the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce. By virtue of the imperial ordinance of 1886 the whole empire was divided into 16 districts, called major forests, which are divided into 325 minor forest reserves. The latter are again divided into protection stations.

The organic law applied to Japan forests is in force in the mainland, Shikoku and Kiushiu. The State forests of Hokkaido, owing to the advancement of colonization in that island, are now under the Department of Home Affairs, the direct charge of which is vested in the governor of the island. The State forests of Formosa also are managed by the local governor under surveillance of the Minister of Home Affairs.

Geographically, Japan is composed of six principal islands and smaller ones of varied size and importance, numbering several hundreds.

From an economic point of view the forests of Japan are divided into "utilization forests" and "protection forests." The "utilization forests" are to be managed by the owners as they like and maintained for the utilization of their product. The object of available forest regulation is to attain the largest possible yield by encouraging the free exertions of enterprising foresters, so that a valuable source of wealth may be thus retained for the benefit of the country. In general those forests which are owned by the State and Crown are being improved in accordance with the results of modern scientific research. These forests are valuable, while most of those held privately are left in their natural condition with no attempt at improvement.

Forests are found everywhere in the empire, from Formosa, in the extreme south, to Hokkaido, in the extreme north. The distribution is greatly influenced by the elevation of the country and the density of population. Except a few forests scattered over the plains the main forest land

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is in the mountain systems of the country which traverse the whole empire lengthwise from the south to the north. Thus the different mountain chains which traverse Hokkaido lengthwise and transversely constitute a splendid forest area.

In the main island a chain of forests begins with Mount Hakkoda, in Mutsu, and extends to the boundary line from Mount Asama, in Shinano, to the crown forests of Fuji and Amagi, between the provinces of Kai and Suruga. In the province of Kii the chain starts from Mount Kumano and runs to meet the forests in the Yoshino district of Yamato. In Shikoku the line crosses the boundary between Sanuki and Awa and proceeds over the summit of Mount Ishizuchi to the forest in Tosa. In Kyushu the line is continued through Mount Aso and extends to Mount Kirishima toward the south. Thus the forests of Japan mostly lie in the mountainous districts, along the backbone of the country, and are seldom found in the plains or along the coast. They are most numerous in the cooler regions of the north, the growth being less in the warmer south, as is shown in the table on page 77, the figures given being in cho, one cho being equivalent to two and a half acres and a square mile containing 259 cho.

The table does not include the forests of Formosa and the Kurile islands, which now are under investigation.

As shown in the table the distribution of forests is largely due to local influences, and the products are in like manner varied. Excepting Hokkaido, which was opened only thirty years ago, Japan in its northern part contains many mountains of great height and steepness. There forests grow most luxuriantly and are a most valuable product of the land. In the middle part of the main island the mountain character is well represented by Mount Fuji and the surrounding mountains. They decrease in size and number toward the southwest, where there is much well worked, arable land, varied with some hills and mountains of less prominence.

The unequal distribution of forests in the country is explained by these geological features, combined with social and economic agencies which greatly modify the progress of this important national industry. In the older and densely populated sections the necessities of the people and the demand for agricultural land have induced a lavish denudation of forest areas, the same as in other countries.

After all has been said, many regions are still well supplied with timber. In the northern provinces of the main island and Hokkaido the forests have not only yielded a supply for the local inhabitants, but a good deal of timber and its

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products has been exported. Hokkaido exports timber to the main island and China and Korea for use in house and railroad building. Two species of cedar produced in Aomori and Akita are exported not only to Tokyo and Osaka, but to Shikoku and Kyushu. While the forests in the northern provinces of the main island are chiefly virgin, the forests in the southern provinces are mainly the results of planting. Silviculture was early developed in Yoshino, and in parts of Kii, Tamba, Inaba, Higo and Settsu, where are found splendid woods producing both timber and fuel and managed under a scientific system. The owners of these forests have lately come to consider it to their advantage to cut their trees earlier than in former times, leaving the production of big timber for special purposes to the natural forests of the north.

The forests of Japan are divided into four groups, Tropical, Sub-Tropical, Temperate and Arctic Forests.

The Tropical Forests grow in the whole of Formosa, the southern half of Okinawa, the Yayeygama Group and the Ogasawara Islands. Of the tropical flora, the banyan, with eighteen species, heads the list, followed by several species of palms and bamboo, none producing useful timber except the bamboo.

The Sub-Tropical Forests comprise a portion of Okinawa, the whole of Shikoku and Kyushu, and that part of Honshu south of 36° N. There are numerous specimens of valuable trees in this region, but owing to the dense population and reckless felling, only a few forests preserve their primitive features. These trees can be divided into three classes,-broad leafed evergreen, broad leafed deciduous and pine forests. Of the broad leafed evergreen trees the more important are the camphor and some varieties of oaks; of the broad leafed deciduous, three varieties of oaks;

while the red and black pine are prominent in the pine family.

The forests of the temperate zone, extending from the centre of the main island northward, and to the southern part of Hokkaido, are largely coniferous. All the varieties have tough, strong wood which is easily worked, as is usual with conifers. Fourteen kinds of conifers are mentioned, three of which are pines. The broad leafed or deciduous trees-called in America hardwoods—are numerous in this zone, occupying more than one-half the forest area. They are, however, seldom found in solid bodies as in this country, though some hardwood forests are found on the main island and in Hokkaido. Seventeen species of deciduous trees are mentioned in the commissioner's report. It is stated that the zelkowa keaki is a variety particularly worthy of note, often attaining large dimensions. The wood is strong, hard and durable, and is valued for house and ship building and for furniture.

The forests in the so-called Arctic or frigid forest zone, including the northern half of Hokkaido and the Kuriles, are of little account, the timber being of a stunted and scrubby growth.

As a whole, the different forest zones, as represented by their typical species, make the following ratio in the timbered area of Japan :

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The forest areas devoted to conifers before long will attain the ratio to which they are entitled, owing to the increasing demand, which promotes their conservation and culture. In the Imperial forests, to which greater attention is paid, the percentages are: conifers, 23, broad leafed, 24; conifer and broad leaf, 49 per cent., thinly stocked or blank, 4.

Tree planting and culture are greatly adding to the resources of the virgin forests, so that Japan seems to be wisely making provision to carry on the lumber industry for a long period of time.

New Publications.

The Red Gum. By Alfred K. Chittenden, Assistant Forest Inspector, Bureau of Forestry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 8vo, 56 pages, illustrated.

This is issued as Bulletin No. 58, and also contains a discussion of the mechanical properties of the wood by W. Kendrick Holt. Red gum grows in mixture with ash, cottonwood and oak throughout the hardwood bottom lands of the Southern States, but in the past has had no marketable value owing to its tendency to warp and twist. Mr. Chittenden describes the characteristics of the red gum tree, mentioning its enemies. The rapid increase in the market for this wood in the past six years are described, the methods of lumbering set forth, together with the use, properties and prices of the wood. Tables show the rate of growth of the red gum, and suggestions are made in regard to the conservative management of the hardwood bottom lands of the South. Mr. Holt has prepared a number of tables of tests of strength made of the green wood of the gum, and in a comparison made with the loblolly pine the red gum showed a slight superiority. The bulletin is embellished by six plates and a map.

The Maple Sugar Industry. Bulletin No. 59, Bureau of Forestry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 56 pages, 8vo, illustrated.

This monograph was prepared by William F. Fox, Collaborator, Bureau of Forestry, and William F. Hubbard, Forest Assistant, Bureau of Forestry, with a discussion of the Adulteration of Maple Products, by H. W. Wiley, Chief Bureau of Chemistry. The whole subject has been gone over in a most thorough manner, Col. Fox having made an especial study of the industry. Interesting facts are given as to the history and present status of maple sugar making, the various improvements in the methods of gathering the sap, as well as the manufacture of sirup and maple

sugar, increasing the yield of the trees and the purity of the product. Descriptions of the different varieties of maple trees are given, with suggestions for the improvement of maple groves. The closing chapter treats of the adulterations of maple sirup and sugar, showing that the major portion of these products as sold in the United States are adulterated chiefly by the use of sugar and glucose. Eight plates and ten text figures aid in an admirable presentation of the maple sugar industry.

Report on an Examination of a Forest Tract in Western North Carolina. By Franklin W. Reed, Forest Assistant, Bureau of Forestry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 8vo, 32 pages, illustrated.

This report is known as Bulletin No. 60, and discusses the proper treatment of about 16,000 acres belonging to the Linville Improvement Company, situated in the mountainous section of North Carolina. It is the desire to improve this section as a summer resort, and at the same time, if it can be done, obtain a return from the forest products. A general description is given of the tract, with the various typical trees, etc. It shows that lumbering on a large scale would defeat the object in view, and gives recommendations in regard to roads, cutting, possible revenue which could be derived, etc.

Terms Used in Forestry and Logging. Bulletin No. 61, Bureau of Forestry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 8vo, 63 pages.

This monograph was prepared by the Bureau of Forestry in co-operation with The Society of American Foresters, and gives definitions of the various terms used in forestry and logging, also in the more important, German and French equivalents.

The first half of the pamphlet is devoted to forestry. There we may read all the technical terms in good use, from "absolute forest land" to "yield table." Many terms explain themselves, but where they are not so readily understood the short definition makes plain at once the idea conveyed and the need of a special word or phrase to convey it.

The logging terms are listed in the last half of the bulletin and contains some remarkable expressions-terms which, though evidently derived from slang, are now in good use among woodsmen either throughout the country or in the region denoted in each case.

A map shows the forest regions of the United States, letters after the definition indicating in which region the words are used.

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NOW READY.—(These with a* as yet unprinted.) HENRY S. GRAVES, Director,

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