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Immigration was heaviest in 1882, amounting to 788,992, while in 1881 it was next heaviest, with 669,431. Great Britain has furnished the largest proportion of any country. Between 1881 and 1890 there were 1,466, 426 from Great Britain, 1,452,952 from Germany, 560,483 from Norway and Sweden, 307,095 from Italy, 265,064 from Russia and Poland, 226,020 from Austria, 127,678 from Hungary, while lesser numbers came from other countries except Canada, from which there were 392,802. There were 4,725,814 from all the countries of Europe.

Immigration during its three largest recent years, 1893, 1892 and 1891, formed respectively 43.79 per cent., 39.24 per cent. and 33.66 per cent. of the annual increase of population, as against 10.92 per cent. in 1879, and 41.09 per cent. in 1874 and 39.23 per cent. in 1868.

In 1898, the smallest immigration year since 1879, there were 229,299. Of these 178,748 came through the customs district of New York, 10,735 through Baltimore, 12,271 through Boston, 8,360 through Philadelphia, 2,274 through San Francisco, and 16,911 through other ports, including those of Canada. Their reported occupations on arrival were as follows: Laborers, 52,531; farmers, 16,243; servants, 23,656; carpenters, 2,904; miners, 1,604; clerks, 2,031; tailors, 3,826; shoemakers, 3,229; blacksmiths, 1,152; the professions, 1,342; skilled laborers, 33,145; of miscellaneous, 104,238.

The nationality of immigrants for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1899, was principally as follows: Italian, 98,730; Irish, 32,345; Polish, 28,466; German, 26,631; Scandinavian, 23,249; Slovak, 15,838; English, 10,

712.

Mulhall estimates that there were 27,205,000 emigrants from Europe in the 73 years between 1816 to 1888, of whom 15,000,000 went to the United States.

In the course of a year the Commissioner of Immigration has many applications from unsuccessful immigrants who want to go back to their homes. Of these the majority are Irish, English and Germans-the better class of foreigners. Of the Italians and Russians and Polish Jews there are few who ever desire to return. The homes they left are probably more wretched than any they are

likely to find here, and hardships which would discourage other immigrants are not sufficient to daunt them. The law governing immigration requires that if, within a year of his arrival, a foreigner is unable to maintain himself here, and is in danger of becoming a public charge, he shall be deported to the country from which he came. If the cause of his inability to support himself originated prior to his departure from home, he is sent back at the expense of the steamship company which brought him over; otherwise the Immigration Fund provides for his passage.

IMMIGRANTS AT NEW YORK.

The average number of deportations since 1893 is 3,535. During the year 1899 there were brought to New York 303,762 steerage passengers by the steamships of the sixteen different lines. The ports from which the immigrants embarked for this country are as follows: Mediterranean ports, 66,316; Bremen, 53,646; Liverpool, 46,061; Hamburg, 41,787; Havre, 22,883; Antwerp, 20,126; Rotterdam, 17,219; Southampton, 11,341; Glasgow, 6,759; Copenhagen, 3,465; Oporto, 1,515; Lisbon, 1,369; Amsterdam, 892; miscellaneous, 351.

The majority of the immigrants were Syrians, Greeks, Italians, Austro-Hungarians, Russians and Polish Jews. According to Commissioner of Immigration Fitchie, more than one-half of these immigrants are undesirable and will tend to injure rather than benefit the country which they have adopted. The Syrians, who are peddlers, seek such places in this country as offer a field for the sale of their wares; the Italians remain in the large cities; the Russians and Polish Jews go to the sweatshops, while the Austro-Hungarians seek employment at the iron foun

dries.

OCEAN CABLES.

The Atlantic telegraph connecting Europe and America was completed in 1866. The first Atlantic cable was laid in 1858. All the cables that now cross the Atlantic were built since 1870. In 1890 there were 120,079 nautical

miles of cable in the world, that cost over $200,000,000.

In 1899 the aggregate number of all submarine telegraphs in the world was 1,500, and their aggregate length 170,000 miles, and their total cost $250,000,000. The number of messages annually transmitted over them is 6,000,000. Between all the grand divisions of the earth are these wires and beneath all oceans except the Pacific. Projected Pacific cables will soon cover even its bottom. About 151,067 miles of the submarine cables belong to 35 companies operating the commercial cables, which number 323. The remainder, 1,142 in number and 19,880 nautical miles in length, are mostly lines controlled by governments, and connecting forts, batteries, signal stations, lighthouses, etc. The governments of the world. hold about 80,000 miles of cable in stock for war purposes, all ready to be laid when necessity may arise.

Twelve Atlantic cables now in use represent a total capital of $85,000,000.

The longest ocean cable is that from Brest to Cape Cod, 3,250 miles.

The quickest cable laying on record was accomplished in 1893, when the duplicate line of the Central and South American Company, in length 2,524 miles, was made and laid in ten months.

The first promoter of the Atlantic telegraph was Cyrus W. Field.

Of the lines owned by nations, Norway has the greatest number of cables, 325, but their aggregate length is only 324 miles. France has the largest nautical mileage of cables, 5,035, the cables numbering 54. Great Britain and Ireland have 135 cables measuring 1,989 miles, and British India 111 cables measuring 1,919 nautical miles. Germany follows with 58 cables and 2,225 mileage. Spain has 15 cables with 1,744 mileage, Japan 70 cables with 1,508 mileage, and Italy 39 cables with 1,061 mileage. No other nation has 1,000 miles of cables.

TELEGRAPHIC CODES.

Ever since submarine telegraphy has become an established means of communication, much ingenuity has been expended on the compilation of codes, partly for secrecy,

but principally to abbreviate the messages and save money in rates. To such a fine point has codifying been brought in this latter direction that the telegraph companies are at their wits' end to maintain a proper equilibrium between the number of messages sent and the number of words transmitted; in other words, between the volume of actual business and the amount of revenue. All large commercial houses now use complicated codes. in which a single word of ten letters represents a sentence of ten, fifteen or twenty words.

SHIP CANALS.

The Suez Canal.-The Isthmus of Suez has been traversed from remote ages by a canal following nearly the line of the present one; nothing certain, however, seems to be known as to whom belongs the credit as its first constructor, but it is generally given to Pharaoh Necho, who reigned about 600 B. C. In course of time it got silted up with sand, but was cleared out by Trajan in the second century, A. D., and later in 767 A. D.) The Emperor Napoleon desired to reconstruct the canal, and had the isthmus surveyed, but nothing was done until the time of the noted Frenchman, Ferdinand de Lesseps, who successfully constructed it. It was begun in 1859, the first vessel passed through Aug. 15, 1865, and it was opened in 1869. De Lesseps had been persistently ridiculed by civil engineers everywhere for a score of years. "The Big Ditch,' as it was called, is 92 miles long and cost $102,750,000. During the first six months of 1898 there were 1,792 ships of 4,842,078 tons net passed through the canal, yielding in dues, $8,636,920. Of these vessels 1,196 were British, 178 German, 107 French, 99 Dutch, 49 Austrian, 39 Italian, 28 Norwegian, 15 Turkish, 18 Spanish, 27 Russian, 5 Egyptian, 17 Japanese, 4 American, 1 Chinese, 3 Danish, 3 Portuguese, 1 Argentine, 2 Greek. Over 90 per cent. of the vessels pass through at night. There is a rule of the road by which one or the other of the vessels going or coming down has to tie while they are actually passing each other. They are furnished with large electric lights at the bow by the company for which a charge of about 10

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guineas is made. The average duration of transit through the canal is about 20 hours.

The Panama Canal Project.-In 1876 French enterprise formed the "International Society of Interoceanic. Canal." Speculators obtained the necessary concessions, interested M. de Lesseps in the scheme of the Panama sealevel canal, and profitably sold out their concessions to his company. In 1879, backed by the approval of an Interoceanic Canal Congress, the project was set on foot and work begun in 1881. It was estimated that the canal would be in operation in 1888. The result of the proj ect was one of the most colossal of historical fiascos. The company's liabilities at suspension were $422,000,000 with an annual interest and fixed charge of $22,000,000. Various estimates place the work accomplished at from 15 to 32 per cent. of the total work to be done. An endeavor to retain life in the project has since been made and is still on foot involving a change of plans to a canal with locks. Its projected length is 46 miles, from 78 to 160 feet wide at the top and from 29 to 72 feet wide at the bottom, and the estimated time of transit when completed, 14 hours. It is said to be practically completed for about 14 miles, from Colon to Bujeo. The greatest expense of construction will be involved in cutting through the Culebra Ridge. About $280,000,000 probably represents the actual amount of money sunk in M. de Lesseps' ditch, though it is said only some $80,000,000 was legitimately expended. In 1893 the French public prosecutor said that the project if continued would pay two per cent. on three billion francs ($600,000,000), only after 1920. It is estimated that its completion would now take ten years at a cost of $100,000,000.

The Nicaragua Canal.-In a conversation with Eckermann, Goethe said: "I therefore repeat that it is absolutely indispensable for the United States to effect a passage from the Mexican Gulf to the Pacific Ocean; and I am certain that they will do it."

The following, reflecting Nelson's views, is in Southey's Life of Nelson: "The project was to take Fort San Juan on the river of that name, which flows from Lake Nicaragua into the Atlantic. Here it is, that

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