of the subepithelial and perivascular networks stain in a normal manner and show no degenerative changes in their structure.

9. Some of the cells of the network are therefore true nerve cells and exert a trophic influence upon the fibers connected with them.

IO. The networks are comparable to the diffuse nervous system of certain invertebrates, and their existence is incompatible with the idea that the nervous system is composed of of distinct cellular units.

Literature.

Apathy, S.

'97. Das leitende Element des Nervensystems und seine topograpischen Beziehungen zu den Zellen. Mith. d. zoolog. Station zu Neapel, Bd. 12, p. 495-748, Taf. 23-32.

Bardeen, C. R.

:03. The Growth and Histogenesis of the Cerebrospinal Nerves in Mammals. Amer. Journ. Anat., Vol. 2, p. 231-257, 15 figs.

Bethe, A.

'95. Die Nervendigung in Gaumen und in der Zunge des Frosches. Arch. f. mikrosk. Anat., Bd. 44, p. 185-203, Taf. 12-13.

'96. Ein Beitrag zur Kentniss des peripheren Nervensystems von Astacus fluviatilis. Anat. Anz., Bd. 12, p. 31-34.

:03. Allgemeine Anatomie und Physiologie des Nervensystems. Leip sig. p. vii+487, 95 Abdg. u. 2 Taf.

Cavalié, M.

:02. Terminaisons nerveuses dans le testicule chez le Lapin et chez le Poulet et dans l'epididyme chez le Lapin C. R. Soc. Biol., Paris, T. 54, p. 298-360.

Dogiel, H. S.

'93. Die Nervendigungen in der Haut der äusseren Genitalorgane des Menschen. Arch. f. mikrosk. Anat., Bd. 41, p. 585-612, Taf. 32-33. '98. Die sensiblen Nervenendigungen im Herzen und in den Blutgefässen der Säugethiere. Arch. f. mikrosk. Anat., Bd. 52, p. 44-69, Taf. 4-6.

Eimer Th.

'79. Die Medusen physiologisch und morphologisch auf ihr Nervensys tem untersucht. Tübingen, p. 1-277, 31 figg., 13 Taf.

Hertwig, O. and R.

'78. Das Nervensystem und die Sinnesorgane der Medusen monographisch dargestellt. Leipsig, p. x+78, 10 Taf.

Hesse, R.

'95. Ueber das Nervensystem und die Sinnesorgane von Rhizostoma cuvieri. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoolog., Bd. 60, p. 411-456, Taf. 20-25.

Hofmann, F. B.

:02. Das intracardiale Nervensystem des Frosches. Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol., Anat. Abth., p. 54-114, Taf. 3-6.

Holmgren, E.

'95. Studier öfver Hudens och de Körtelartade Hudorganens Morfologi hos Skandinaviska Makrolepidopteralarver. Kgl. Svenska. Ventenskaps- Akademiens Handlinger, Bd. 27, p. 1-84, 9 Taf.

'98. Zum Aufsatze W. Schreiber's "Noch ein Wort über das peripherische sensible Nervensystem bei den Crustaceen." Anat. Anz., Bd. 14, p. 409:

Leontowitch, A.

:01. Die Innervation der Menschlichen Haut. Internat. Monatschr. f. Anat. u. Physiol., Bd. 18, p. 142-310, Taf. 6-11.

Mönckeberg, G., and Bethe, A.

'99. Die Degeneration der markhaltigen Nervenfasern der Wirbelthiere unter hauptsächlicher Berüchsichtigung der Verhältnisses der Primitivfibrillen. Arch. f. mikr. Anat. Bd. 54, p. 135-198, Taf. 8-9. Nusbaum, S. and Schreiber, W.

'97. Beiträge zur Kentniss des peripherischen Nervensystems bei den Crustaceen. Biol. Centralbl., Bd. 17, p. 625-640, 8 Figg.

Ruffini, A.

:01. Le fibrille nervose ultraterminali nelle terminazioni nervose di senso, et la teoria del neurone. Revista di patologia nervosa e mentale, Firenzi. Vol. 6, p. 70-82.

Sfameni, P.

:02. Sul modo di terminare dei nervi nei genitalia esterni della femina con speciale riguardo al significato anatomico e funzionale dei corpusculi nervosi terminali. Monit. Zoolg. Ital., Anno 13, p. 288-297.

Smidt, H.

:02. Die intraepithelialen freien Nervenendigung bei Helix und ihre Beziehungen zu Sinneszellen und Drüsen. Anat. Anz. Bd. 20, p. 495-506, 8 Abdg.

THE BEGINNINGS OF SOCIAL REACTION IN MAN

AND LOWER ANIMALS.

By C. L. HERRICK,

Socorro, New Mexico.

It seems to be easy to employ the word "social" in a very slip-shod manner and it may very well be that greater care in its definition would remove several bones of contention that are being worried from time to time in the journals.

When we admit that human experience "polarizes" (to use Professor BALDWIN'S expression) into ego and alter extremes, it becomes necessary very carefully to guard what is meant by the social self or social consciousness. CLIFFORD, and other writers since, have written of a tribal conscience or tribal self. Such expressions may easily be interpreted as though society were possessed of a consciousness in the same sense that the individual is. Now this is, of course, nonsense, or rather, a frequently exposed fallacy.

When we speak of the social self we mean the social reflected in the individual or else we mean an abstraction of common elements in the individual selves constituting the society, which common factors we may thereafter use, like an algebraic expression, as though it had an independent existence. It would be of immense advantage in simplifying philosophical and anthropological inquiry if some sort of an agreement could be reached as to the use of words in this connection. Ought we not carefully to distinguish the two elements just referred to? Let us, for example, call the first the "socius consciousness," meaning thereby all that portion of our conscious acts which involves the recognition of other-in-self and self-in-other, or if the line cannot be drawn, our conscious acts in so far as this implication is under consideration. Let the second element be

termed "society consciousness," meaning thereby the common elements in the consciousness of the constituents of society or the consensus of society. In this way we avoid the ambiguity of the term social consciousness, or, if that term must be used, then by all means limit it to the social reactions within the individual consciousness and use the necessary circumlocutions to express the consensus idea.

Professor BALDWIN, in his genetic series, lays great stress on the "bipolar self." He shows that development of the ego goes pari passu with that of the alter; that self is social from the start. But this is only a phase of the general psychological law that self is reflexive. The wave of effort is met by an inflowing wave of resistance. Without both of these elements experience would be impossible. Just as the simplest form of subjectivity is coupled necessarily with an objectivity (substance), so the most rudimentary personality involves the social ele

ment.

For ethical purposes it is necessary to note that every moral act or thought has a social implication. This is part of the meaning of KANT'S well-known rules of morals. But psychology has, or ought to have, something to say as to the origin of the social faculty. Much of this has been interpreted by Professor BALDWIN in his description of the projective and ejective stages of social development.

Perhaps, however, some attention should now be given to the condition back of the projective activity, namely to the continuum habit, or, negatively expressed to fit its more common manifestation, the hiatus effect. If the equilibrium theory of consciousness be true, the elements in the equilibrium may be roughly classified into relatively constant, and variable elements, the a, b, c, series and the x, y, z series respectively.

By a process of familiarization, one of the variables may be converted into a constant and become a part of the usual furniture of consciousness. The process of assimilation causes the stimulus or group of stimuli increasingly to participate in

1 The law of dynamogenesis is implied throughout.

the self group. A wooden leg or a thorn in the flesh may assimilate itself closely to the self of normal experience, self being, of course, a relative or variable term the center of which alone is fixed.

Now let any circumstance deprive us, let us say, of any "a" in the series of constants and there at once arises what we may call a feeling of hiatus. If this is true of stimuli in general, it is no less true of many stimuli that are called social. The habitutal reaction to the expected resistance is a large part of our daily activity and holds the germ of social response. If the very trivial nature of the following illustrations can be forgiven they will illustrate what is meant better than psychological discussion.

The writer has two horses which for years have been driven, housed and fed together. All habitual activities have been coordinated by necessities growing out of their environment. Originally the animals (mares) regarded each other with distrust and even hostility. Even after years, their intercourse is always aggressive. One steals the other's feed and is attacked for it. There is a continual "nagging." Usually one acquires the ascendency and all that is necessary is a show of teeth on the part of one to cause flight or submission on the part of the other, which, nevertheless, is in a state of constant rebellion.

Now should one animal be left in the stable with a manger full of hay and the other driven away, the stay-at-home is restless and uneasy, declines to eat and neighs continually. The animal driven away strives to turn back, is nervous and neighs and starts out of the road on coming in view of any horse in the distance. Each, as we say, "misses" the other. What is the explanation? Evidently the simplest explanation is that a large segment has been knocked out of self. A whole group of activities (resistances and the like) have been removed. The equilibrium of habitual activity has been disturbed. For weeks every act has been tacitly or by unconscious implication put forth in view of a presence which could be relied upon to react in certain ways. Hitherto the horse never ate, drank or pulled