those individuals who now relied on their protection, an arrangement was effected with the king of the French for granting them passports to pass through his dominions, on their route to America, or any other country to which they chose to resort. Another instance occurred in 1638, on the return of prince Louis Bonaparte from America, whither he had been sent about two years before for attempting to raise a rebellion at Strasburg. On his return to Europe he made choice of Switzerland for his residence, and possessed an estate in the canton of Thurgau. The proximity of Switzerland to France was, however, a reason for Louis Philippe to demand his expulsion, which being refused by the Swiss, there was every reason to expect a war between them and the French, had not Louis voluntarily departed for England, and thereby prevented a rupture which might have been fatal to Swiss independence.

THE HISTORY OF ITALY.

This delightful region of Europe, as celebrated for its genial climate, as for being the seat of that mighty empire which of old gave laws to the world; this classic land, where all that is noble in art and science have flourished; though shorn of its former glories, still claims the traveller's homage and the attention of the historian. Before Rome had absorbed all the vital power of Italy, this country was thickly inhabited, and for the most part, by civilized nations. In the north of Italy alone, which offered the longest resistance to the Romans, dwelt the Gauls. Farther south, on the Arno and the Tiber, a number of small tribes, such as the Etrusci, the Samnites, and Latins, endeavoured to find safety by forming confederacies. Less closely united, and often hostile to each other, were the Greek colonies of Lower Italy, called Magna Grecia.

Italy, in the middle ages, was divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Italy. The first division comprehended all the stales situated in the vicinity of the Po; the second extended between the former and the kingdom of Naples; which formed the third. At present, it is divided into the following independent states, which are not connected with each other by any political tie:—1. The kingdom of Sardinia; 2. Lombardy, or Austrian Italy (including Milan, and Venice); 3. the duchy of Parma; 4. the duchy of Modena (including Massa); 5. the grand-duchy of Tuscany; 6. the duchy of Lucca; 7. the republic of San Marino; 8. the Papal dominions; 9. the kingdom of Naples, or the two Sicilies. Italia did not become the general name of this country until the age of Augustus. It had been early imperfectly known to the Greeks under the name of Hesperia. Ausonia, Saturnia, and Œnotria, were also names applied by them to the southern part, with which alone they were at first acquainted. The name Italia was at first merely a partial name for the southern extremity, until it was gradually extended to the whole country.

The modern history of Italy begins with the fall of the western empire. Romulus Augustus, its last feeble emperor, was dethroned by his German guards. Odoacer, their leader, assumed the title of king of Italy: and thus this country was separated from the Roman empire. But this valiant barbarian could not communicate a spirit of independence and energy to the degenerate Italians; nothing but amalgamation with a people

In a state of nature could effect their regeneration. Such a people already stood on the frontiers of Italy. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, instigated by Zeno, emperor of the East, overthrew the kingdom of Odoacer, in 493, and reduced all Italy. His Goths spread from the Alps to Sicily. In the lagoons of the Adriatic alone, some fugitives, who had fled from the devastations of Attila, maintained their freedom. Theodoric, who combined the vigour of the north with the cultivation of the south, is justly termed the Great. But the energy of his people soon yielded to Roman corruption. Totila, for ten years, contested in vain the almost completed conquest with the military skill of Belisarius. He fell in battle in 552; after which Italy was annexed to the eastern empire, under an exarch, who resided at Ravenna. But the first exarch, Narses, sunk under the intrigues of the Byzantine court, and his successor neglected the defence of the passes of the Alps. The country was then invaded by the Lombards, who, under Alboin, their chief or king, conquered the territory which afterwards received its name from them.

The kingdom of the Lombards included Upper Italy, Tuscany, and Umbria. Alboin also created the duchy of Benevento, in Lower Italy, with which he invested Zotto. The whole of Lombardian Italy was divided into thirty great fiefs, under dukes, counts, &c., which soon became hereditary. Together with the new kingdom, the confederation of the fugitives in the lagoons still subsisted in undisturbed freedom. The islanders, by the election of their first doge, Anafesto, in 697, established a central government, and the republic of Venice was founded. Ravenna, the seat of the exarch, with Romagna, the Pentapolis, or the five maritime cities (Rimini, Pisaro, Fano, Sanigaglia, and Ancona), and almost all the coasts of Lower Italy, where Amalfi and Gaeta had dukes of their own, of the Greek nation, remained unconquered, together with Sicily and the capital, Rome, which was governed by a patrician in the name of the emperor. The slight dependence on the court of Byzantium disappeared almost entirely in the beginning of the eighth century, when Leo, the Isaurian, exasperated the orthodox Italians by his attack of images. The cities expelled his officers, and chose consuls and a senate, as in ancient times. Rome acknowledged, not indeed the power, but a certain paternal authority of its bishops, even in secular affairs, in consequence of the respect which their holiness procured them. The popes, m their efforts to defend the freedom of Rome against the Lombards, forsaken by the court of Byzantium, generally had recourse to the Frank ish kings.

In consideration of the aid expected against king Astolphus, pope Stephen III., in 753, not only anointed Pepin, who, in the preceding year, had been made king of the Franks, with the approbation of pope Zacharias, but with the assent of the municipality of Rome, appointed him patrician, as the imperial governor had hitherto been denominated. Charlemagne made war upon Desiderius, the king of the Lombards, in defence of the Roman church, took him prisoner in his capital, Pavia, united his empire with the Frankish monarchy, and eventually gave Italy a king in his son Pepin. But his attempts against the duchy of Benevento, the independence of which was maintained by duke Arichis, against the republics in Lower Italy, where Naples, Amalfii, and Gaeta, in particular, had become rich by navigation and commerce, were unsuccessful. The exarchate, with the five cities, had already been presented to the pope by Pepin, in 756, and Charlemagne confirmed the gift; but the secular supremacy of the popes was not completed until the pontificate of Innocent III., about the year 1201. Their rank, however, among the ecclesiastics of the west, and the temporal power now acquired, gave them an ascendency .er the clergy and laity in Europe, which they failed not to improve unti y were acknowledged as the infallible heads of the church.

Leo III. bestowed on the king of the Franks, on Christmas day, A. D. 800, the imperial crown of the west, which needed a Charlemagne to raise it from nothing. But dislike to the Franks, whose conquest was looked upon as a new invasion of barbarians, united the free cities, Rome excepted, more closely to the eastern empire. Even during the lifetime of Charlemagne, Frankish Italy was given to his grandson Bernard; who, however, having attempted to become independent of his uncle, Louis the Debonnaire, was deprived of the crown, and had his eyes torn out. Italy now remained a constituent part of the Frankish monarchy, till the partition of Verdun, which took place in 843; when it was allotted, with the imperial dignity, and what was afterward called Lorraine, to Lothaire I., eldest son of Louis. Lothaire left the government to his son Louis 11., the most estimable of the Italian princes of the Carlovingian line. After his death, in 875, Italy became the apple of discord to the whole family. Charles the Bald, of France, first took possession of it; and after his death Carloman, king of Bavaria: who was succeeded, in 880, by his brother Charles the Fat, king of Suabia, who united the whole monarchy of the Franks for the last time. His dethronement, in 887, was the epoch of anarchy and civil war in Italy. Berengarius, duke of Friuli. and Guido, duke of Spoleto (besides the marquis of Ivrea, the only ones remaining of the thirty great vassals) disputed the crown between them. Guido was crowned king and emperor, and after his death (894) his son Lambert. Arnold, the Carlovingian king of the Germans, enforced bis claims to the royal and imperial crown of Italy (896) but, like most of his successors, was able to maintain them only during his residence in the country.

After the death of Lambert and Arnold, Louis, king of Lower Burgundy, became the competitor of Berengarius I.; and this bold and noble prince, although crowned king in 894, and emperor in 895, did not enjoy quiet till he had expelled the emperor Louis III., and vanquished another competitor, Rodolph, of Upper Burgundy; he was even then unable, on account of the feeble condition of the state, to defend the kingdom effectively against the invasions of the Saracens and the Hungarians. After the assassination of Berengarius, in 924, Rodolph II. relinquished his claims to Hugh, count of Provence, in exchange for that country. Hugh sought to strengthen the insecure throne of Italy by a bloody tyranny. His nephew, Berengarius, marquis of Ivrea, fled from his snares to Otho the Great, of Germany, assembled an army of fugitives, and returned and overthrew Hugh in 945, who was succeeded by his son Lothaire. Berengarius became his first counsellor. But, after the death of Lothaire, in 950, (poisoned, it was said, by Berengarius,) the latter wished to compel his widow—the beautiful Adelaide—contrary to her inclination, to marry his Escaping from the prison to which he had consigned her, she took refuge in the castle of Canossa, where she was besieged by Berengarius II. She now applied for aid to Otho I., king of Germany, who passed the Alps, liberated her, conquered Pavia, became king of the Franks and Lombards, and married Adelaide. To a prompt submission, and the cession of Friuli, (the key of Italy,) which Otho gave to his brother Henry, Berengarius was indebted for permission to reign as the vassal of Otho. But the nobles of Italy, preferring new complaints against him, ten years after, Otho returned in 961, deposed him, and led him prisoner to Bamberg; and, after having been himself crowned king of Italy with the iron crown, in 961, united this kingdom with the German. Otho gave the great imperial fiefs to Germans, and granted to the Italian cities privileges that were the foundation of a free constitution, for which they soon became ripe.

son.

The growing wealth of the papal court, owing to the munificence of the French kings, which had promoted their influence on the government, so beneficial under Leo IV., and popes of a similar character, became. through the corruption of the Roman court, in the tenth century, the first

cause of its decline. The clergy and the people elected the popes according to the will of the consuls and a few patricians. Alberic of Camerino, and his son Octavian, were absolute masters of Rome, and the latter was pope, under the name of John XII., when twenty years of age. Otho the Great, whom he had crowned emperor in Rome, in 962, deposed him and chose Leo VIII. in his stead; but the people, jealous of their right of election, chose Benedict V. From this time, the popes, instead of ruling the people of Rome, became dependent upon them. In Lower Italy, the republics of Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi, still defended their independence against the Lombard duchy of Benevento, with the more ease, since the duchy had been divided, in 839, between Siconolphus of Salerno and Ra delghisius of Benevento, and subsequently among a great number; and since, with the dukes, they had had a common enemy in the Saracens, who had been previously invited over from Sicily by both parties (about 830) as auxiliaries against each other, but who had settled and maintained themselves in Apulia. The emperors Louis II. and Basilius Macedo had, with combined forces, broken the power of the Mussulmans; the former was, nevertheless, unable to maintain himself in Lower Italy, but the Greeks, on the contrary, gained a firmer footing, and formed, of the regions taken from the Saracens, a separate province, called the Thema of Lombardy, which continued under their dominion, though without prejudice to the liberty of the republics, upward of a hundred years, being governed by a captain, or governor-general, at Bari. Otho the Great himself did not succeed in driving them altogether from Italy. The marriage of his son, Otho II., with the Greek princess Theophania, put an end to his exertions for this purpose, as did the unfortunate battle at Basentello, to the similar attempts renewed by Otho II. (980.)

In opposition to the designs of the count of Tusculum, who wished to supplant the absent emperor at Rome, a noble Roman, the consul Crescentius, in 980, attempted to govern Rome under the semblance of her ancient liberty. Otho II., king since 973, occupied with his projects of conquest in Lower Italy, did not interfere with this administration, which became formidable to the vicious popes Boniface VII. and John XV. But when Otho III., who had reigned in Germany since 983, raised his kinsman Gregory V. to the popedom, Crescentius caused the latter to be expelled, and John XVI., a Greek, to be elected by the people. He also endeavoured to place Rome again under the nominal supremacy of the Byzantine empire. Otho, however, reinstated Gregory, besieged Crescentius in the castle of St. Angelo, took him prisoner, and caused him to be beheaded, with twelve other noble Romans, A. D. 998. But the Romans again threw off their allegiance to the emperor, and yielded only to force. On the death of Otho III. (1002) the Italians considered their connection with the German empire as dissolved. Harduin, marquis of Ivrea, was elected king, and crowned at Pavia. This was a sufficient motive for Milan, the enemy of Pavia, to declare for Henry II. of Germany. A civil war ensued, in which every city, relying on its walls, took a greater or less part. Henry was chosen king of Italy by the nobles assembled in Pavia; but disturbances arose, in which a part of the city was destroyed by fire (A D. 1004.) Not till after Harduin's death, which occurred in 1015, was Henry recognized as king by all Lombardy. He was succeeded by Conrad II. At a diet held at Roncaglia, near Placenza, in 1037, Conrad made the fiefs hereditary by a fundamental law of the empire, and endeavoured to give stability and tranquility to the state, but without success. The cities, which were daily becoming more powerful, and the bishops, were engaged in continual quarrels with the nobility, and the nobility with their vassals, which could not be repressed.

Republican Rome, under the influence of the family of Crescentius, could be reduced to obedience neither by Henry II. and Conrad II., noi

by the popes. When Henry III., the son and successor of Conrad, en tered Italy in 1040, he found three popes in Rome, all of whom he deposed, appointed in their stead Clement II., and ever after filled the papal chair by his own authority, with virtuous German ecclesiastics. This reform gave the popes new consequence, which afterward became fatal to his successor. Henry died in 1056. During the minority of his son, Henry IV., the policy of the popes, directed by Hildebrand (afterward Gregory VII.) succeeded in creating an opposition, which soon became formidable to the secular power. The Normans also contributed to this result. As early as 1016, warriors from Normandy had established, themselves in Calabria and Apulia. Allies, sometimes of the Lombards, sometimes of the republics, sometimes of the Greeks against each other and against the Saracens, they constantly became more powerful by petty wars. The great preparation of Leo IX. for their expulsion terminated in his defeat and capture. (1053.) On the other hand, Nicolas II. united with the Norman princes, and, in 1059, invested Robert Guiscard with all the territories conquered by him in Lower Italy. From that time, the pope, in his conflicts with the imperial power, relied on the support of his faithful vassal, the duke of Apulia and Calabria, to which Sicily was soon added. While the small states of the south were thus united into one large one, the kingdom in the north was dissolved into smaller states. The Lombard cities were laying the foundation of their future importance. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa were already powerful.

In the small republics of the north of Italy, the government was, in most cases, divided between the consuls, the lesser council, the great council, and the popular assembly. Petty feuds developed their youthful energies. Such were those that terminated with the destruction of Lodi by Milan, in 1111, and the ten years' siege of Como, by the forces of all the Lombard cities, which lasted from 1118 to 1128. The subjugation of this city rendered Milan the first power in Lombardy, and most of the neighbouring cities were her allies. Others formed a counter alliance with her antagonist, Pavia. Disputes between Milan and Cremona were the occasion of the first war between the two unions (1129) to which the contest of Lothaire II. and Conrad of Hohenstaufen for the crown, soon gave another direction. This was the origin of the Ghibelines (favourers of the emperor) and the Guelfs (the adherents of the family of Guelfs, and in general the party of the popes.)

In Rome the love of liberty, restrained by Gregory VII., rose in proportion as his successors ruled with less energy. The schisms between Gelasius II. and Gregory VIII., Innocent II. and Anacletus 11., renewed the hopes of the Romans. Arnold of Brescia, formerly proscribed for his violent attacks against the luxury of the clergy in that century, was their leader. After eight years, Adrian IV. succeeded in effecting his execution. Frederic I., of Hohenstaufen (called Barbarossa) crossed the Alps six times, in order to defend his possessions in Italy against the republicanism of the Lombard cities. Embracing the cause of Pavia, as the weaker, he devastated the territory of Milan, destroyed Tortona, and was crowned in Pavia and Rome. In 1158, he reduced Milan, demolished the fortifications of Placenza, and held a diet at Roncaglia, where he extended the imperial prerogatives conformably with the Justinian code, gave the cities chief magistrates, and proclaimed a general peace. His rigour having excited a new rebellion, he reduced Cremona to ashes, compelled Milan to submission, and, having driven out the inhabitants, demolished the fortifications.

When the emperor entered Italy in 1163, without an army, the cities concluded a union for maintaining their freedom, which, in 1167, was con verted into the Lombard confederacy. The confederates restored Milan and to hold in check the Ghibeline city of Pavia, built a new oily, called