veterate enemy, he put an end to his existence by poison. The war with Philip, king of Macedon, and afterwards with Perseus, his son, was a remarkable epoch. Philip, after having suffered great loss, made peace with the Romans; but Perseus, with a view of recovering back what his father had lost, renewed a war which deprived him both of liberty and life, and reduced the kingdom to a Roman province. Antiochus, king of Syria, who had declared war against the Romans in compliance with the wishes of Hannibal, was likewise obliged, in order to obtain peace, to cede all the country he possessed on the western side of Mount Taurus.

The Romans beheld with pain the existence of Carthage, and eagerly sought an occasion to commence hostilities. An opportunity soon presented itself. The Carthaginians being at war with Massinissa, king of Numidia, the Romans armed in his favour, and sent a strong force against Carthage itself. The Carthaginians defended themselves courageously; but the Roman commander, Publius Cornelius Scipio, becoming master of it, reduced it to ashes, and carried with him its riches to Rome. Thus ended the third Punic war; and thus fell Carthage, the ancient and powerful rival of Rome, B. C. 147. Carthage was originally a colony from Tyre, founded on the coast of Africa, about 70 years before the foundation of the city of Rome. It was a commonwealth, governed by a senate and magistrates, annually elected; and had risen to great wealth and pow er by its commercial enterprise, at the commencement of hostilities with Rome. Upon a philosophical examination of these two republics, it will be found that a variety of causes contributed to give Rome the superiority over Carthage-1st. Two opposing parties continually divided the sen ate of Carthage: the rich were constantly advocates for peace; the poor for war, expecting thereby to enrich themselves by its spoils. 2dly. Avarice dictated all their deliberations; they conquered but to amass wealth. 3dly. Carthage, not having any allies, had not the assistance of auxiliaries. The only advantage which they possessed over the Romans, consisted in the superiority of their marine. 4thly. The state was poor, and individuals were very rich. At Rome, the love of war was the spirit that animated all orders of the state. Every man was a soldier; glory decided every thing. They were ambitious of the empire of the world; they opposed to undisciplined troops, citizens on whose courage and virtue they could depend; and they had allies without number dispersed around them. The destruction of Carthage increased the ambition of the Romans. They marched an army against the cities of Greece, which were in league against their power, and obliged them to submit; but not before the city of Corinth had been taken, and destroyed. The Spaniards, who had revolted about the same time, were defeated; and the taking of Numantia brought all Spain under their power.

To these triumphs abroad, intestine divisions often succeeded. Tiberius Gracchus, and afterwards Caius Gracchus caused the plebeians to revolt against the aristocracy. Jugurtha, king of Numidia, being dissatisfied with the manner in which Micipsa, his father, had disposed of the king. dom, having divided it between himself and his two brothers,—caused them to be put to death; and found means, for some time, by presents, to render the Romans favourable to his schemes; but being attacked by them, Metellus took several places from him. At length, Marius, a man of obscure birth, but of great military talents, being elected consul, put an end to this war; and Jugurtha was led in captivity to Rome, where he died of hunger. Marius defeated the Teutori, the Cimbri, and other northern nations, who had made irruptions into Gaul. Spain, and Italyand during the war, which was carried on twelve years, signalized himself by his ability and his courage. The people of Italy took up arm, against Rome, for having refused them the rights of citizenship. This insurrection was the more difficult to overcome, as the insurgents were

perfectly acquainted with the military discipline of the Romans. The senate disarmed a part of them, by an acquiescence with part of their demands; and this mistaken policy was the occasion of a civil war. It was followed by that of Mithridates of Pontus, the civil war of Marius and Sylla, and that of the gladiators. Mithridates, king of Pontus, powerful and proud, yet brave and active, and as implacable in his hatred to Rome as Hannibal, determined, if possible, to humble that haughty republic. He began by a general massacre of the Romans within his territory: he next reduced several Roman provinces in Asia, and caused a Roman general to be murdered. Sylla, the consul, was charged with the conduct of this war; but Marius, by his intrigues, not only caused him to be removed, but obtained the appointment for himself. This proceeding brought on the civil war so destructive in its consequences both to Italy and Spain: to the latter Sertorius, the partizan of Marius, had retired. Sylla joined to courage and activity immense wealth and suavity of manners, which gave him considerably the advantage over Marius, who died in the second year of the civil war. Mithridates having been defeated both by sea and land, solicited peace, which was granted to him: but Murena, one of the lieutenants of Sylla, having infringed the treaty, the war recommenced. Mithridates prevailed upon Tigranes, king of Armenia Major, to engage in the quarrel by his assistance, he defeated the Romans, and invaded Bithynia. The consul Lucullus then marched against Mithridates, entirely disconcerted his measures, and obliged him to retire into Armenia Two successive victories, which he gained over the Armenians, would have furnished him with the means of dictating the terms of peace, if Glabrion had not been appointed in his place. Under this consul, Mithridates recovered his losses, and ravaged Cappadocia: but Pompey, already rendered famous for his bravery in the war against the pirates of Cilicia, which he terminated in forty days, being appointed to the command, drove Mithridates out of Pontus, pursued him to Armenia, and defeated him on the banks of the Euphrates, where, in a paroxysm of despair he put an end to his existence. Thus terminated a war which had lasted, with unabating fury, twenty years. Pompey returned to Rome crowned with laurel, and possessed of immense riches.

During the time of Rome's victories abroad, great dissensions prevailed at home. The slaves, contrary to their inclinations, had been compelled to become gladiators. Spartacus, one of them, found means to escape from the school at Capua, and assemble a considerable army, whose standards bore the word, "liberty," as a motto. He defeated the Romans in several engagements; but was at length totally routed by Licinius Crassus Spartacus, perceiving the alternative was no other than to be made a prisoner, or to die, was killed in battle, fighting heroically. A new conspiracy exposed Rome to the greatest danger. Lucius Sergius Catiline, a man of high birth, but plunged in debauchery and debt, had formed a design of becoming master of Rome. Cicero, the orator, discovered the plot. The army raised for his nefarious purpose, was routed, Catiline killed, and the greater part of his accomplices taken and beheaded Sylla, having set a bad example, several Romans there were, who, possessing equally his ambition, but wanting his abilities, aspired at sovereign authority. But Pompey, Crassus, and Cæsar, more bold and more active than their competitors, divided the government between them. This coalition was termed the first triumvirate. Cæsar, however, would have no equal; Pompey disdained to have a superior; and the rivalry of these two powerful men soon occasioned the ruin of the state. Cæsar obtained the consulate, and with it the government of Gaul for five years. Pompey and Crassus remained at Rome, while Cæsar was busied in extending his conquests, and laying the foundation of his future greatness. He attached Pompey to his interests, by giving him his daughter in mar

riage; and, joining valour with policy, he signalized himself by the great est military enterprises. He defeated the Swiss, who had endeavoured to establish themselves in Franche Comté; subdued Ariovistus, king of the Germans, who had invaded that province; conquered the Belgians or Flemings, and reduced with wonderful facility the whole of Gaul. He invaded Britain, and imposed a tribute upon the inhabitants. All these achievements were performed in the space of eight years. Crassus hav. ing been killed in a battle with the Parthians, and the daughter of Casar, the wife of Pompey, being dead, Pompey beheld with a jealous eye the brilliant actions of his father-in-law, and sought by every means in his power, to render him obnoxious to the people; he even endeavoured to deprive him of his government. Cæsar, assured of the fidelity of his troops, arched directly to Rome, when Pompey and his partisans imme diately bandoned it.

Cæsar had now become a perpetual dictator; he gained the people by his bounties, by his valour, and his wisdom, and intimidated his enemies He pursued Pompey to Greece. After several events, those great rivals met on the plains of Pharsalia; and victory declared in favour of Cæsar, who was as remarkable for his clemency after the battle, as he had been for his bravery during the engagement. The vanquished Pompey retired into Egypt. Ptolemy, king of that country, thinking thereby to make his court to Cæsar, had him assassinated, and sent his head to that conqueror, who could not refrain from shedding tears to the memory of so great a man. It was at this period that Cæsar became acquainted with Cleopatra, whom he caused to be proclaimed queen of Egypt, her brother, Ptolemy, having been drowned in the Nile. He marched against Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, whom he conquered with so much ease that be thought three words were sufficient to announce his victory-“ Veni, vidi, vici." Two sons of Pompey endeavoured to revenge the death of their father; but fortune was unpropitious to their designs; after an obstinate battle, their amy was defeated. Caius Pompey, the eldest son, was killed; and it was with extreme difficulty that the youngest escaped the hands of the conqueror. It was in this war that Cato, disdaining to survive liberty, put an end to his existence at Utica. Cæsar returned to Italy; but, inflated with his extraordinary success, displayed more ostentation and pride than he had hitherto done. Rome groaned under the intolerable yoke he had imposed; and a conspiracy having been formed against him, he was assassinated by Brutus in the senate.

Lepidus and Antony, lieutenants of Cæsar, breathed extreme vengeance Antony examined the will of the dictator; and by it he had adopted Oc tavius, the son of his sister Julia. He bequeathed his gardens to the people, and a sum of money to each particular citizen. There were likewise legacies to several of the conspirators, particularly to Brutus, with reversion to Octavius. The funeral oration delivered on this occasion, the appearance of the veteran soldiers in tears, who threw their arms and crowns upon the funeral pile of their illustrious general, and the cries of the Roman ladies, transported the people with rage against the conspirators, whose houses and property they burnt. It was thus that the people laid the foundation of their future misery and slavery. Octavius, who was in Greece at the time of his uncle's murder, did not, on his return to Rome, find Antony disposed to relinquish the power he had assumed in his absence. Bruins possessed the government of Gaul, which Antony now obtained of the people, contrary to the will of the senate, and he marched, aided by Octavius, against Brutus, in order to dispossess him thereof by force. This conduct offended the senators. Antony being defeated, went to Lepidus, then in Gaul; and the senate confirmed Brutus in his office. Octavius, highly offended at this action of the senate, formed in alliance with Antony and Lepidus; and this union formed the second

triumvirate It was agreed between them, that Italy, and the coast, should be in common; that Antony should command in Gaul, Lepidus in Spain, and Octavius in Africa and Sicily. Lepidus remained at Rome to defend Italy; while Antony and Octavius were employed in combating Cassius and Brutus. Thus all their common enemies were immolated in the cause of the triumvirate, and their particular friends were sacrificed to the resentment of each triumvir. Octavius destroyed Cicero. His head and hands being severed from his body, were fastened to the tribune, where that great orator had so often astonished Rome by his eloquence. Antony abandoned his uncle, Lepidus his brother. Three hundred senators, and four thousand knights, were proscribed. Thus Rome became the theatre of horror and infamy; and the cruelties were renewed that had been heretofore practised in the contest between Marius and Sylla.

In the meantime, Cassius and Brutus were defeated at Philippi: and each of them put an end to his existence, in order to avoid falling into the hands of the conqueror. Octavius returned to Rome; Antony went into Asia. He there cited Cleopatra to appear before his tribunal, for having taken part with the assassins of Cæsar; becoming enamoured with her beauty, he sacrificed thereto his glory and his interest. He did not return to Italy for upwards of a year, when he married Octavia, sister to Octavius, and widow of Marcellus. A new division of the empire now took place; all the eastern parts were ceded to Antony, the western to Octavius, and Africa to Lepidus, who contested Sicily with Octavius. Lepidus, deserted by his friends, was exiled to a small town in Latium. Antony, fascinated by the charms of Cleopatra, employed his time in giving superb entertainments, instead of attending to the concerns of his army, He endeavoured to justify his conduct to the senate; but they were incensed at his neglect, and declared war against him. The armies met at Actium, where Octavius gained that celebrated victory, which made him master of the whole Roman republic. Cleopatra, alarmed, set sail for the Peloponnesus; and Antony abandoned his fleet, and the empire of half the world, to accompany his mistress to Egypt. Being pursued by his conqueror, he fell upon his sword, and thereby put an end to his life. Cleopatra shut herself within the temple of Antony, where she applied an asp to her bosom, and expired at the base of the statue of her infatuated admirer. Octavius now returned to Rome, and had a public triumph during three days. Having become sole master, he feigned a desire to resign his authority, and demanded the advice of Agrippa and Mecænas. The former advised him to re-establish the republic; but the opinion of the latter being contrary, and Octavius abiding by it, the slavery of Rome was decided. He left some appearance of authority yet in the hands of the senate, in dividing with them the provinces of the empire; but reserved to himself all those in which the troops were stationed, that he might at all times be master of the army. Thus commenced the mightiest monarchy that any age has produced.

It will, perhaps, be interesting to investigate the cause of the astonishing and rapid elevation of the Roman empire. 1st. The indignity with which they treated all those whom the fortune of war had placed within their power; being as ambitious of becoming masters of their persons as of their dominions, in order that they might load them with chains, drag them in triumph after their chariots, and put them to ignominious deaths; and as these princes were, almost without exception, devoted to luxury and effeminacy, they beheld Rome with terror and humility; and the presence of an army of veterans was enough to reduce them to servitude. 2nd. Experience having taught the Roman senate how much the people of Europe were better adapted to war than those of Asia, it prohi ited entirely the people of Asia from coming into Europe, and the Europeans from going into Asia. 3rd. The extent of their jurisdiction being all the

then known world, the senate decided, before their own tribunals, all the quarrels which took place between the dependent kings and their subjects, and between different nations. These they terminated according to their pleasure, always enfeebling those from whom they had anything to fear; and, on the contrary, supporting those from whom they had anything to hope. 4th. When any two nations, over whose quarrels the senate had no immediate right of decision, commenced war with each other, the Romans always declared themselves in favour of the weaker party, whether their assistance had been implored or not. The stronger being reduced, the one through fear, and the other through gratitude, submitted to chains imposed by the conqueror. They then assumed to themselves the titles of protectors of the distressed, supporters of the weak, and the avengers of wrongs; and these brilliant titles contributed as much to extend and confirm their authority, as it made them beloved by those whom they had it in their power to serve, and feared by those who dreaded their punishment. 5th. The senate always accustomed itself to speak in the haughtiest manner to the ambassadors of the different nations to whom they gave audience; and if, in return, the Romans were treated with contempt, they complained loudly of the violation of their rights, and of the insult offered to the majesty of the Roman people. Thus they declared war against those who would not submit to their insolence or flatter their pride. 6th. When they were determined to make war upon any nation, they allied themselves with some of their neighbours, at whose charge it was carried on. They always had in their neighbourhood a second army, before they risked a battle with the first; and a third in Rome, ready upon all occasions; these important precautions rendered their legions inexhaustible. 7th. When they foresaw a probability of having to encounter two nations at the same time, they negotiated with the weakest, who generally accepted, with avidity, the offer of peace. It was, therefore, very difficult to form a powerful league against the Romans, because, as they were implacable in their resentments against their enemies, they intimidated, by their approach, all those who had formed plans inimical to the interest of the republic. The senate, although proud, and addicted to vengeance, were, nevertheless, perfect masters of the art of dissimulation, when it was not in their power to revenge an injury: they sometimes even refused sufficient satisfaction when offered it, at a time they were otherwise employed, that the right of reprisal might still remain, and which they intended to exercise, when a more favourable opportunity presented itself. Thus they never made war but when it was convenient to their interests. 8th. If any general, after having received a check, made an inglorious peace, the senate always refused to ratify it. Thus the prisoners of war, which the conquerors had spared, and released upon their parole, appeared again in arms under a new chief. These were the more terrible, as they had to efface, by their valour, the disgrace which they had formerly sustained. The general who was the author of the treaty, was delivered up to the enemy; and this was termed, by the senate, a respect to the rights of the people. 9th. If, on the contrary, the enemy, enfeebled by defeat, demanded peace, the senate appeared satisfied with the conditions they offered, and accepted their terms in the meantime, having rectified their legions, they would express a dislike to some of the articles of the negotiation, and offer others with which they knew the enemy would not comply. The war then recommenced; and the enemy, in hopes of peace, having neglected their army, were presently subdued. 10th. When the Romans were at war with a prince, if his children betrayed him, his subjects revolted, or his allies deserted him, the senate afforded them an asylum, and declared them their allies: this title rendered sacred all those who received it, and it protected them in the commission of all rimes that might be useful to the state. 11th. Every treaty of peace