name of his master to preserve the constitu- gary and Transylvania resided in bodies tion. Every fresh accession was then farther known as Diets. ratified by a diploma of the Diet. The nobles and citizens of Hungary enjoyed the same rights in Transylvania as at home, and vice versâ, while there was free trade between the two States. But Transylvania had her own legislature, her own government, separate and distinct from that of Hungary. The two countries, thus separated, continued to preserve their constitutional liberties against the machinations of the Court of Vienna, and in spite of intrigue and violence remained, under the rule of the absolute Austrian Emperor, as independent States.

The Diet of Hungary consisted of two houses, the upper, or House of Magnates, and the lower, or House of Representatives. The upper house was presided over by the Palatine, who, as the chief executive officer, or governor of Hungary, was elected for life by the Hungarian Diet. The House of Magnates was composed of the members of the various Hungarian magnate families, Prince, Count and Baron, the Ban of Croatia, the Bishops and prelates of the Catholic Church, and the Mayors of the several departments or counties, each having a vote. The lower house was presided over by a It is of interest to the public and of im- person appointed by the King, and consisted portance to our design, that the peculiar fea- of deputies elected by the counties. Hungary tures of the Hungarian and Transylvanian was divided into fifty-two departments or constitutions should be explained. The in- counties, each of which met quarterly under vestigation becomes doubly important from the presidency of its Mayor, or in his abthe fact that these are the oldest guaranteed sence, the Vice-Mayor. We have given the forms of government in Europe; their origin name of Mayor to these functionaries for lost in the forgotten past, and their pro- want of a better English synonyme. The visions preserved through a lapse of ages, words in Magyar are Fö Ispany and Al amidst violence, intrigues, and commotion. Ispany; or in Latin,- supremus comes and The Hungarian constitution was based vice comes. These, it is curious to note, are upon principles of the most liberal character; the Latin names of offices under the English but its provisions, until the year 1848, were common law, from whence arose the titles confined solely to the nobility. Till then the of Earl and Viscount. The duties of the nobility was the nation. The Hungarian Hungarian officers are not exactly the same, noble was the freest man in the universe, though their powers are somewhat analohaving all possible liberties and benefits, be-gous. As chief of the county, supremus ing entirely the master of his own actions, comes, the word Mayor is the best that we and having his personal security guaranteed can find to convey a meaning. Of these by the first article of the constitution. That instrument contains the initiatory words: "Nobilis, nisi legitimè citatus atque convictus, aggravari potest."”· "The noble, unless justly arraigned and convicted, cannot be molested." But under this arrangement the people were nothing except slaves to the most absolute tyranny. And it is to be noted that the privileges of nobility were not alone conferred upon the Magyars; the nobles of the other races in Hungary enjoyed the same privileges. It may be remarked in connection with this, that the nobles of the different races, with the exception of a very few, joined the Magyar nobles and people during the recent struggle, and the Croatian Ban, Jellachich, was obliged to use martial force to repress the Croatian nobles of Turopolya.

counties any noble residing or having property within their bounds was a member. Their duty at their meetings was to discuss and decide upon all matters of interest to the portion under their jurisdiction; to watch over the domestic administration and policy; and to amend, alter and abolish their own constitution, except when such action conflicted with the fundamental law of the realm. These local legislatures had also the power to elect the various officeholders, with the exception of the Mayors, who were nominated by the King. This election for officers was called a restoration, and was conducted by the Mayor. years the Government, having aspired to virtually control the municipalities by electing the officers, caused a great disturbance by their intrigues and made the elections scenes The legislative power was of course in the of great excitement. Every county, without hands of these nobles; and both in Hun-regard to its population or extent, was en

Of late

titled to send two deputies to the Diet. | sins, namely, three races and four religions, The National Assembly of Croatia possessed each acknowledged by law and furnished the right to send three deputies to the Diet. with the same rights. The privileged three The capitals and convents of the Catholic races were the Magyar, the Szekler, both of Church sent deputies, but these had collec- whom spoke the same language, and the tively but one vote; and the deputies of Saxon. Each of these had its own desigthe free royal towns had the same priv-nated territory. The Hungarian division

Fourthly, A portion of the magnates and wealthy nobles called to legislation by special letters of appointment, given by the Grand Duke, usually called litteræ regales, royal letters, whence these deputies were called Regalists. Thus it was in Transylvania, that only such of the nobles as were friends to the monarch entered the Diet.

Fifthly, The bishops of the Catholic and the united Greek Church.

the lower house could initiate a bill, the upper could stop it of course; and any measure displeasing to the Court of Vienna met with a prompt negative by her noble-born instruments. In Transylvania, the number of regalists not being determined by law, the monarch could at any time control the whole legislation by his creatures. Thus it was that there crept into the Transylvanian Diet a set of miserable conservatives, whose sole This Diet was presided over by an elec-ambition was to pander to the views of the tive president, whose station was the most Court. And the regalists were farther asimportant in Transylvania. Besides exercis-sisted by the twenty-two representatives of ing the law-making power, the Diet elected the Saxons, who never hesitated to take any the principal office-holders, from the gover- position they could, antagonistic to the welnor of Transylvania down. But in these fare of the Hungarian constitution; and the elections the four religions we have before representatives of the Szekler and Magyar given were obliged to be respected; and for races, and of the free towns, were constantly every office three candidates of each religion in danger of being overwhelmed by the were chosen and nominated to the sovereign, Saxons and an indefinite number of regalists. who selected from these. But the King was bound in his choice to respect the same principles, and divide his gift of life-offices among the favored beliefs.

According to the compact made in 1690 with the house of Hapsburg, the Diet was to be convoked annually by a special minister. The laws and resolutions which passed the Diet were submitted to the King, who had a right to send them back with his objections, which were to be respectfully considered. Unfortunately, there was no limit as to the time in which a bill should be returned, and frequently very necessary bills of immediate importance were retained some half a century by the supreme power, in order to give proper consideration. The deputies from the towns in Transylvania, and the members of the lower house, were paid from the public treasury; but the nobles and bishops, being supposed to represent their own interests, obtained no compensa

tion.

A constitution so illiberal as each of these, however well it might have answered in a darker time, was manifestly out of keeping with the progress of civilization, and it became a point of national interest to effect a reform. The constitution of Hungary had a tendency, though based upon aristocratic principles, to improvement; but so active were the intrigues of the ruling house against the liberty of the nation, that the Diet for a long while had enough to do to ward off these blows of the Court. Francis the First, after having, as previously stated, accepted and sanctioned the conditions imposed on Leopold the Second, and re-affirmed his acceptance in the act by which he created himself Emperor of Austria, convoked the Diet regularly, according to law. But during that time the nation was too much occupied with wars and rumors of wars, to proceed regularly or zealously with constitutional or social reforms. The chivalrous nature of Hungary, and her loyalty to the crown of St. Stephen, led her to submit to

Such were the peculiarities of the two constitutions, at the incipiency of the strug-repeated demands for men and money, withgle for reform and freedom; and the formation of the legislative bodies was found to be the greatest bar to advancement. The members of the upper house in Hungary, and the regalists in Transylvania, were the principal tools employed by the Austrian Government to carry out their darling wish, and undermine the structure of Hungarian nationality. In Hungary, the majority of the magnates were conservatives, who completely checked the efforts of the progressive nobles. Though

out exacting in return an abatement of grievances. When the victories of Napoleon were shattering the unity of Austria, the Diet was reminded of its response to Maria Theresa at a similar crisis, and each appeal to their liberality was answered with devotion if not enthusiasm. Even when the Hungarians had grown weary of a war wherein they had performed the giant's labor for the dwarf's reward, the near approach of the invader made them. firmer

in defense of the very King who had vio- | in spite of all persecution. The censorship lated their rights. When the victorious of the press was rigorously enforced; new army of Napoleon crossed the frontiers of and galling restrictions were placed upon Hungary, its great commander issued a pro- commerce; the paper currency, immensely clamation to the people, promising to main-expanded during a long war, was depreciated tain their national independence, and inviting by government, at two several times, 98 per them to elect any King they chose according centum; Francis, in infraction of his coroto their national constitution. In that mem- nation oath, did not convoke the Diet from orable proclamation the various violations of 1811 to 1825; and nearly every article of the constitution by the house of Hapsburg the constitution of 1790 was assailed by were clearly exposed, and how little of good violence or evaded by intrigues. In 1822 and much of evil Hungary must necessarily and 1823, the Austrian Cabinet attempted expect from its perfidious royal race. Able to levy troops and collect taxes, in direct and masterly in its style and tenor, it was violation of the diploma of Leopold the correct in its conclusions; for it prophesied, | Second. The county courts refused to put as the result of a refusal to abandon the in execution the illegal orders. The CabiEmperor-King, the ultimate downfall of net, determined to enforce its usurped auHungarian liberty and independence. Let- thority, surrounded many of the county ters were also dispatched by Napoleon to halls with troops, during the session of the leading Hungarians, containing the same legislative court, intending to intimidate the striking considerations. But the fidelity of members. But this move was met by pasthe nation remained intact; it respected its sive but unshaken resistance, each member allegiance to its sovereign, and continued a declaring that he would be buried beneath war which could never turn out to its own the ruins of the hall where he sat rather than advantage, unless the Court, in return for yield to so palpable a violation of the constisuch devotion, would on the restoration of tution. At length Francis was compelled peace assist in the necessary reforms. But the to recede, and in 1825 again assembled the chivalry of the nation was ill-recompensed. Hungarian Diet. From 1796 to 1811, the Diets were convoked to grant supplies, and prorogued when they began to discuss grievances; and thus for year after year the unequal contest was maintained between a generous people and a prince who forgot nothing save his promises.

At the peace of 1815, it was found that Hungary, in spite of wars, levies, and the worst of governments, had materially increased in prosperity; and it was every where hoped that peace would afford an opportunity of devising and effecting those cardinal reforms admitted to be so necessary. But it was an era of protracted disappointment. Austria, as a member of the Holy Alliance, was now more than ever determined to place Hungary on the same footing with her hereditary States. A Court party was sedulously fostered in the Diet and the country; Austrian officers were placed in command of Hungarian regiments; and every effort was made to gain the necessary strength to consummate their intrigues. In the army no Hungarian could arrive at distinction, if he were not educated as a tool of the Camarilla-unless it might be a few stubborn fellows who fought their way up

Under the lead of the distinguished Nagy Pál, or Paul Nagy, the session of this Diet was stormy; but found only time to discuss and endeavor to obtain atonement for the accumulated wrongs of thirty-five years. So resolutely did they proceed about this work, that the Emperor-King retracted, apologized, and by additional articles engaged to observe the fundamental laws of his Hungarian kingdom, to convoke the Diet triennially, and not to levy subsidies without its authority and warrant.

From that year the movements of the Austrian Government were less daring and more insidious. After the Diet of 1825, the Court of Vienna sent for Nagy Pál, the leader of the lower house, that he might hear the royal word. The exact nature of the interview is not public. But in the next Diet, Nagy Pál was dumb, took no more an active part in politics, became the recipient of a very lucrative office from the EmperorKing, and in his private conversation was ever after a strong advocate of conservative measures.

Up till that time the democratic principle in government was hardly known in Hungary, the constitution being based solely on