25

Anæsthesia

oped a strength of voice, under the direction of Lamperti in Dresden, and Julius Stockhausen in Frankfurt, that gave him a very high place among high class heroic tenors. His first appearance was made at Weimar in 1882; soon after he appeared in New York as "Don José" to Mme. Lilli Lehmann's "Carmen." From that time his success was assured, his popularity increasing until 1889 when he appeared as "Siegfried," which proved to be his master rôle. For this performance he was complimented on every hand, and no one praised him more than did M. Jean de Reszke, who, though perhaps superior to Alvary as a singer, is thought by some to lack the latter's natural adaptation to the part of "Siegfried." Alvary made several extended visits to America, his last public appearance being in the spring of 1896, when he sang in New York with Katherine Klafsky, under the direction of Mr. Walter Damrosch, with whom he had previously been associated. He enjoyed marked success in Europe. After leaving New York in 1891, he went to the Stadt Theatre in Hamburgh, and, it is said, remained a member of the company as long as he could sing. Among the rôles in which he appeared are "Adolar" in Euryanthe, "Alvarez" in Cortes, "Merlin Assad" in The Queen of Sheba, "Loge," "Faust," "Walther," "Tannhäuser," and "Tristan." But he will be best remembered for his magnificent rendering of "Siegfried." Alvary, who was a man of much personal beauty, was always in his best days "dramatic, graceful, un-selfconscious." He was a conscientious artist, and, though by no means superficial, gave much care and attention to the minute details of his rendering. He is said to have had a singularly "simple, cheerful nature." In the latter part of his life, it is said, he was financially in very straitened circumstances. His wife and a number of children survive him; to him and Frau Alvary there were born thirteen children, some of whom are now dead.

AMERICA, FLORA OF. See BOTANY (paragraphs Systematic Botany, North America, South America, Ecology and Plant Geography).

AMHERST COLLEGE, at Amherst, Massachusetts, was founded in 1821. It is non-sectarian and for men only. In 1898 the professors and instructors numbered 36 and the students 380; the fellows and resident graduates numbered, 4; seniors, 89; juniors, 77; sophomores, 88; freshmen, 122. The following degrees were conferred at the commencement in June: B. A., 54; B. S., 31; M. A., 9; LL. D., 2; D. D., 1. The president, Merrill E. Gates, LL. D., tendered his resignation June 8, 1898, to take effect in April, 1899; President Gates was absent during the year beginning in April 1898, the executive duties being assumed by Dr. Edward Hitchcock, M. A. The college had in 1898 a permanent investment of $1,402,404 and a beneficiary fund of $240,000. The following departments were reorganized and enlarged: English Language, Rhetoric, and Public Speaking; French; German; and Bibical Literature; a new department of Modern Governments was instituted. In March 1898, the college suffered the loss of Henry Allyn Frink, professor of logic, rhetoric and public speaking. See Table under UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES.

AMICIS, EDMONDO DE. See ITALIAN LITERATURE (paragraph Fiction). AMMEN, DANIEL, rear-admiral, U. S. N., (retired), died in Washington, D. C., July 11, 1898. He was born in Brown county, Ohio, May 15, 1820. He entered the navy in 1836; was executive officer of the frigate Roanoke during the Civil War; commanded the gunboat Seneca November 7, 1861, at the capture of Port Royal, where he distinguished himself. He was engaged in all the operations under Admiral Dupont on the South Atlantic coast, commanding the monitor Patapsco at Fort McAllister in March, and at Fort Sumter, April 7, 1863, and the Mohican during the two bombardments of Fort Fisher. Rear-Admiral Porter recommended him for promotion, and he became captain July 25, 1866. He subsequently became commodore and in 1877 rear-admiral, being retired in 1878. After the Civil War he designed the "Ammen balsa" to facilitate the landing of troops and field artillery on exposed beaches; he also designed a life raft for steamers, and a marine ram which has been adopted by the Navy Department. He published in 1891 The Old Navy and the New.

AMMONIA (from Garbage). See GARBAGE.

AMPERE, NEW DETERMINATION OF. See PHYSICS (paragraph Electro-Chemical Equivalent of Silver).

ANÆSTHESIA. General.-Schleich, of Berlin, has devised a mixture of chloroform, petroleum, ether and sulphuric ether, to be used for general anesthesia, by inhalation. With it excitement during introduction is rare, and not marked at any time. There is no collection of mucus in the respiratory passages, no cyanosis. The pulse becomes full and regular, respiration remains unchanged, unless the patient is getting too much of the anaesthetic; then it becomes deep and very rapid. Patients anæsthetized by this mixture awake more rapidly. Half of them will walk home in an hour after recovering consciousness. They vomit much less frequently than when other narcotics are used. In Meyer's (of New York) cases but 44 per cent. vomited.

Anarchists

There is no consecutive bronchitis, no pneumonia. Albuminuria appears in only 4 per cent. This mixture is best administered on an Esmarch's mask, covered with oil-silk, and to which a small funnel has been attached.

Local.-Prof. E. W. Scripture, of Yale University, discovered that anæsthesia of the tissues resulted from sinusoidal electric currents of high frequency, the condition lasting a considerable period after the removal of the electrodes. See PsyCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL (paragraph Yale University). Sensation of pain and the perception of cold or heat were abolished. Schieich, of Berlin, who undertook four years ago to devise a method of local anesthesia that would employ cocain in a safe way and yet render it a competitor of the more dangerous general anæsthetics, was the inventor of the infiltration method. He uses graduated solutions of cocain, morphia and sodium chloride, mixed and injected in small quantities in adjacent areas after the entire surface which is to be the field of operation has been frozen with a spray of ether or ethyl chloride. By this method incision of abscesses, of boils, carbuncles and whitlows has been effected painlessly in many hundred instances, new growths have been removed, bones have been resected, teeth have been extracted and amputations have been made.

Eucain has been used with success in superficial operations, in 3 per cent. to 5 per cent. solutions.

ANAM or ANNAM, formerly an empire of southeastern Asia, is now a French protectorate, forming part of French Indo-China. As officially used, the name is applied to an ill-defined strip of territory extending along the coast of the China Sea with an area of 81,042 square miles, and with a population variously estimated at from 2,000,000 to 6,000,000. Since the convention with Siam in 1893 the river Mekong has formed the western boundary. For more than a century France has had relations with this country which at one time included six provinces of Lower Cochin China together with Tonquin, Tsiampa or Champa, and part of the ancient kingdom of Cambodia. The King of Anam formerly acknowledged the feudal overlordship of the Emperor of China. In 1862 he threw himself upon the protection of the French in order to put down a revolt of his Tonquinese subjects. The French wrested from him several of his provinces and continued to encroach upon his territory. In 1883 they decided to assert a protectorate over the land that remained and this plan was carried out by treaty in the following year. The country is fertile, producing rice, maize and other cereals, good timber and a variety of fruits and of vegetable substances useful in the industrial arts and in medicine. Its mineral resources are said to be important and include copper, iron, silver and a small quantity of gold. Raw silk is produced and there are manufactures of earthenware and coarse cloth. The principal exports are sugar and cinnamon. The capital is Hué, with a population variously estimated from 15,000 to 30,000. A garrison of French troops is maintained there. See INDO-CHINA.

ANARCHISTS. The anarchists have been active in recent years especially on the continent, but the United States has been comparatively free from their outrages since the famous Haymarket affair in Chicago. France has suffered severely. In 1894 one of the French newspapers published a list of eighteen anarchistic outrages which had been committed in the preceding ten years. It gave also a list of anarchist newspapers published throughout the world. The greatest number of these were published in Germany, France, and Italy. In the United States there were but two and one of these, that which Johann Most issued in New York, recently came to an end. Some of the principal outrages since the beginning of the year 1894 were as follows: Vaillant tried to throw a bomb into the French Chamber of Deputies on December 9, 1893. He was arrested and executed in the following February. Emile Henry was convicted of bomb-throwing in Paris on February 12, 1894, and was guillotined in the following month. Almost at the same time the Barcelona outrage resulted in the apprehension and execution of six anarchists who had been found guilty of an attempt at assassination and bomb-throwing. Next came the murder of President Carnot by an Italian anarchist at Lyons June 24, 1894. In Italy in August of the same year another anarchist confessed to the murder of an Italian editor. In March 1895, an anarchist named Olivieri threatened the life of King Humbert, and on his arrest was thought to be the man who five years before had thrown a threatening letter into the carriage of the Emperor William of Germany while the latter was visiting Rome. In January 1895, the Attorney-General of the province of Milan, Italy, Signor Celli, was murdered by an anarchist. Efforts were made in the different European States to suppress anarchists, and a movement has been set on foot from time to time to form some sort of an international agreement in order to deal more effectually with these criminals. In the United States a law was passed on August 16, 1894, for the exclusion and deportation of foreign anarchists. A good many outrages have been classed as anarchistic, although their connection with that movement has not been proved. In 1897 the list of murderous attacks on prominent people included the second attempt on King Humbert of

27

Angola

Italy, the murder of Canovas del Castillo, the murder of President Borda of Uruguay, and the assaults on President Diaz of Mexico and President Morales of Brazil, the latter assault resulting in the death of the Minister of War.

The assassination of the Empress of Austria (see ELIZABETH EMPRESS OF AUSTRIA) in September, 1898, again drew the attention of the public to the anarchists; and an international conference was assembled at Rome to consider the adoption of more effective measures against them.

The four points to be discussed by the powers, with the understanding that each power was free to propose others were: In the first place, Should Anarchists be considered as common law instead of political offenders? Secondly, Should the offenders be subject to extradition instead of being considered as at present, political refugees? Thirdly, The establishment of ways and means for suppressing anarchistic propagandism in the press; Fourthly, The establishment of an international system of European powers against the anarchists. The conference closed on December 21, 1898, but without publishing its results.

ANCIENT ACCEPTED SCOTTISH RITE MASONS are the Supreme Council of Sovereign Grand Inspectors-General of the Thirty-third and last degree. This is divided into two bodies: Northern Masonic Judisdiction, with Henry L. Palmer, M. P., Sovereign Grand Commander, and Clinton F. Paige, Binghamton, N. Y., as Grand Secretary-General; and Southern Masonic Jurisdiction, with Thomas H. Caswell, M. P., Sovereign Grand Commander, and Frederick Webber, 433 Third street, Washington, D. C., as Secretary-General. These two bodies hold relations with the Supreme Councils in all countries of the world.

ANDREE, S. A. See ARCTIC EXPLORATION.
ANGIOSPERMS. See BOTANY.

ANGLICAN CHURCH. See ENGLAND, CHURCH OF.

ANGLO-AMERICAN ALLIANCE. In England a society known as the AngloAmerican League, was founded in 1898 at Stafford House, the Duke of Sutherland presiding. The objects are to secure the "most cordial and constant co-operation" between England and America. Membership is open to British subjects and American citizens. When the Spanish-American war broke out, and there was some indication of a continental coalition to coerce America, a sympathy sprung up between the two great branches of the English race, and there was a mutual popular feeling that the common language, common blood, and essential republicanism in both nations pointed to an alliance of these foremost peoples of the earth. It was evident that the old animosities had for the most part disappeared and that a sympathetic alliance already existed, but a formal or political alliance in the near future seemed very improbable, although an English society was organized to bring about this result. It was recognized that permanent unions must be based upon common interests, ideals and aspirations, while the genius or spirit of government must in each case be the same. These requirements being so nearly met by England and America, the argument for alliance, in terms of expected results, were: "The supremacy of the Anglo-Saxon; the spread of constitutional government, based on an ever-broadening suffrage; the checking of the threatening aggressions of absolutism; the fostering of free speech and free thought through the world; the placing of the United States second to nɔ commercial power; and, lastly, the securing of an ally which would prevent any continental power from meddling with American affairs.' While it was recognized by all that a sympathetic alliance might be strengthened with profit to both nations and to humanity in general, one of the objections urged against a political, institutional, or governmental alliance was as follows: England is the chief factor in the "Concert of Europe" by which the status quo is maintained. To disturb the "Concert" even slightly would throw all Europe into political confusion and probably into war. England's interests would not permit her to leave the Concert, thus destroying the status quo, for the sake of American alliance. Political alliance for us, then, it was claimed, meant our entering into the status quo programme of monarchical Europe. And this, it was held, is not the business of a democracy. See the article UNITED STATES (paragraphs on History).

ANGLO-AMERICAN COMMISSION. See CANADA (paragraphs on History). ANGOLA, or PORTUGUESE WEST AFRICA, lies on the western coast of Africa between the Congo Free State' on the north and German Southwest Africa and British South Africa on the south, with a coast line of 1000 miles, an area of 484,800 square miles, and a population estimated at 4,119,000, though some authorities place it at less than half that number. Its capital is St. Paul d'Loanda and some of the important towns are Cabinda, Ambriz, Benguella, Novo Redondo, Mossamedes, and Port Alexander. The chief exports are rubber and coffee, and the chief products besides these include wax, sugar, cocoanuts, vegetable oils, ivory, oxen and fish. Among the minerals copper, malachite, iron, petroleum, and salt are found in great

quantities and gold is said to exist. There are over 200 miles of railway open for traffic and over 260 miles of telegraph line.

ANNUNZIO, GABRIELLE D'. See ITALIAN LITERATURE (paragraph Fiction). ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. In the spring of 1898 the Royal Society of England held a conference for the consideration of Antarctic exploration. It was soon rumored that the government was favorably disposed to such an enterprise and that it had approached, with a view to co-operative effect, not only the Australian colonies, but Russia, Germany, and Norway. No such combination, however, resulted, and about the middle of August an English expedition sailed from the Thames in the Southern Cross. This vessel, designed by Mr. Colin Archer, the builder of Nansen's Fram, has a displacement of 481 tons, is 146.5 feet long, and can maintain a speed of 9 knots; the bows, built of solid oak, are 11 feet thick, and the sides 3 feet thick in the weakest part; the whole is covered with American greenheart, and the ship, with the exception of the Fram, was said to be the strongest wooden vessel afloat. The expedition consisting of thirty-four persons and led by Mr. Carsten Egeberg_Borchgrevink, an Anglo-Norwegian, included the following scientific staff: Sub-Lieutenant W. Colbeck, R. N. R.; Mr. Louis Bernacchi, of Melbourne Observatory; Mr. Herlof Klövstad,of Christiania, University; Mr. Nicolai Hansen; Mr. Hugh Evans. The party was fully equipped for polar travel, the outfit containing a large supply of scientific instruments, small boats of the collapsible pattern, kayaks made in England, but in the Eskimo style, and seventy Samoyad dogs by which sledge-transportation was to be effected over the ice. The object of the expedition was scientific observation rather than the attainment of some farthest-south point or of the Pole. It was hoped in some degree to solve the problem of the "influence of this region on the climatology and meteorology of the world"; it was hoped that botanical and zoological study might reveal some of the former conditions of the region, and that important data might be attained in the field of geology and terrestrial magnetism. Borchgrevink sailed south from Hobart, Tasmania, December 19, 1898.

In the summer a Belgian expedition also sailed. It was commanded by Gerlach and sailed for Grahamland.

ANTHRAX. See SERUM THERAPY. ANTHROPOLOGY IN AMERICA. Anthropology, the youngest of the sciences, can hardly be regarded as fully organized, despite the widespread interest in the subject and the increasingly voluminous contributions in all civilized countries. Its state of development is such that the more important contributions are those tending to define the science and establish its foundation. Recent contributions of this kind have been made in America, chiefly by three institutions, (1) the Bureau of American Ethnology, (2) the Anthropological Society of Washington, and (3) the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In the current classification of the science, recognized in the official ethnologic bureau, adopted as a basis for the sectional divisions in the second organization, and approved by different members of the third, seven major divisions are recognized, (1) Somatology or the Science of the Somatikos, (2) Psychology, (3) Estheology, (4) Technology, (5) Sociology, (6) Philology, (7) Sophiology or the Science of Philosophies. The five branches last named are sometimes combined for convenience under the term Demonomy-i. e., the science of system of the Demos, the artificial group of men. For special purposes, Somatology is somewhat extended to overlap portions of the fields of the other anthropological sciences so as to form Ethnology-i. e., the Science of the Ethnos, or natural group of men. The several primary divisions are sometimes sub-divided, perhaps the most important subdivision being that of technology into modern and archaic, when the latter is termed archæology. This classification is deemed important as a contribution to anthropology made within the last decade of the century, and also as a basis for the present article.

The Smithsonian Institution and National Museum.-We pass over the first years of American anthropology with a mere mention of such pioneer workers as Eliot and the Jesuits in the seventeenth century, Zeisberger, Heckewelder and Jefferson toward the close of the eighteenth, and Duponceau, Gallatin, Schoolcraft, Hale and Morgan in the first half of the present. The establishment of the study upon a secure basis in this country dates from the founding of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington in 1846, under a bequest of over half a million dollars, left in trust to the United States in 1826, by James Smithson, son of the English duke of Northumberland, "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Under the management of its first secretary, Joseph Henry, through a long administration of more than thirty years, the Institution grew and developed its usefulness until it became recognized as the leading scientific establishment of America, and perhaps of the world. It is now the central controlling force of several important scientific branches of the government service, including the Smithsonian proper, the Nationa!

Museum, the Fish Commission, the Astrophysical Laboratory, the National Zoölogical Park and the Bureau of American Ethnology. It is governed by a board of regents, including ex-officio the President, Vice President and members of the cabinet. Its chief office is styled the Secretary, the present incumbent, S. P. Langley, the third in line of succession, having entered upon his duties in 1888. The Institution is organized upon a broad basis and includes within its scope every department of science, but we shall treat here only of those relating directly to anthropology. Its great storehouse of study material is the National Museum, which had its original nucleus in the collections of the Wilkes exploring expedition of 1838-1842, and was first recognized by Congressional appropriation in 1858. It constitutes now the largest scientific depository in America and probably the third largest in the world. It is organized in three departments, of which anthropology— using the word in its widest sense-is the most extensive and important. The Museum has far outgrown the capacity of the present building, completed in 1881, and there is urgent need of a more commodious structure for the better housing and displaying of collections. The general collections of American archæology are displayed in the building of the Smithsonian proper. The Smithsonian library, most of which is at present accommodated in the Congressional library building, consists of more than 80,000 bound volumes, with pamphlets, periodicals, maps and so forth, aggregating altogether about 360,000 pieces.

The Bureau of American Ethnology. From the beginning the Smithsonian Institution had given attention to anthropology, its first scientific publication, issued in 1848, having been an elaborate work upon the ancient remains of the Mississippi valley. Others of like character followed from time to time, and in 1876, by coöperation with the United States Geological Survey, of the Rocky Mountain Region, a series was begun under the title of Contributions to North American Ethnology, to embody the ethnologic results of the surveying and exploring expeditions then in progress west of the Mississippi. In 1879 the Bureau of Ethnology was established by Congress, as a branch of the Smithsonian Institution, for the special purpose of ethnologic research among the Indian tribes, particularly those of the United States. Major J. W. Powell, director of the geological survey, who had been chiefly instrumental in calling attention to the subject, was made director of the bureau, a position which he still retains, ably seconded by W. J. McGee, as ethnologist in charge. The bureau maintains a force of trained experts and gives assistance also to outside collaborators, in addition to affording them facilities for publication. The work consists chiefly of field investigations among the various tribes, supplemented by library research, the results being published in annual reports and in monograph bulletins issued at irregular intervals. More recently it has been found advisable also to undertake the publication of rare manuscript documents, especially those relating to the Spanish colonization in the southwest. Photographic work is done in the field and in the office, and the Indian portrait and landscape negative number now nearly 7,000. The field collections illustrating Indian art and life are deposited in the National Museum, where they constitute perhaps half of the aboriginal material. The Bureau has its own working library, including a number of rare volumes, and an invaluable linguistic library, consisting of about 1,600 manuscript vocabularies, glossaries and texts, largely gathered by its own workers and recorded in a special phonetic alphabet, making altogether the most important collection of American linguistics in existence. To secure the best results with the greatest economy of labor it was found necessary to map out the working field according to some systematic plan. While for museum or historical purposes the territorial or geographic arrangement may be preferable, for general ethnologic purposes it was found best to base operations upon a linguistic classification, which frequently also corresponds closely with the geographic scheme. In this way the investigator familiar with any one tribe can extend his researches with most advantage to cognate tribes wherever found. It was discovered that the hundreds of native languages in the United States and northward can be grouped into 57 stocks, some of which may hereafter prove to be related. The nur ber of stocks or languages south of the Rio Grande is not yet determined. The ultimate purpose of the Bureau to include in the scope of its operations the whole American continent is emphasized by its recent change of title to the Bureau of American Ethnology.

Smithsonian Publications. Following are the principal former and current publications of the Smithsonian, nearly all of which contain more or less of anthropologic material: Annual Reports of the_Smithsonian Institution, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Annual Reports of the National Museum, Bulletins of the National Museum, besides other special issues. The Bureau of American Ethnology has published in addition sixteen Annual Reports, ten Contributions to North American Ethnology and a series of bulletins, with other irregular issues. The complete list of Smithsonian publications numbers