In using meats for soup-making, the object is to draw out as much of the goodness as possible. This is accomplished by putting the meat on in cold water, and allowing the water to heat gradually to the boiling point, then simmering for several hours, after which time the meat is deprived of its extractives, some mineral water, and soluble albumen, though the greater part of its nutritive. value is not extracted; nevertheless, lacking flavor, it is hardly palatable for serving. In the making of stews, when meat and broth are both to be used, the meat should be put on in cold water, brought quickly to the boiling point, and then allowed to simmer until tender.

Experiments have shown that where the water is allowed to boil vigorously during the entire cooking, the connective tissue has been gelatinized, while the fibres are hard and indigestible; quite the reverse is true of the fibres where the meat is cooked for a longer time at a lower temperature, and the connective tissues are partially dissolved. In the latter case the economy of fuel is worthy of consideration.

Cold water dissolves albumen, hot water coagulates it, as does intense heat. Meats, when broiled or roasted, are brought in direct contact with intense heat (coal, gas, or electricity furnishing the fuel), and turned frequently, thus seering the entire surface as quickly as possible. This method is applied to the more expensive cuts of meat. Meat, when baked in a hot oven, is commonly called roasted, as the old method of roasting before live coals has almost passed out of use.

In cooking meats, when the object is to retain as much nutriment as possible, the surface should be subjected to a high temperature to quickly coagulate albuminous juices. When cooked in water, the water must be at the boiling point to accomplish this, allowed to boil vigorously for five minutes, and then allowed to simmer for several hours. This method is applied to the cheaper cuts of meat.

MORE

CHAPTER IX.

WATER.

[ORE than two-thirds of the weight of the body consists of water. An adult requires five pints daily, and is furnished with this supply from the food he eats and the beverages he drinks. The outgo is even greater than the income, owing to the chemical changes which are constantly taking place in the body.

Pure water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, there being two parts of hydrogen to one part of oxygen. The symbol of water is H2O.

It

Water as found in nature is never chemically pure. not only contains many mineral substances, but decaying animal and vegetable matter, and often pathogenic germs. From this statement it may be seen that a water supply cannot be too carefully guarded.

The clear, colorless, tasteless fluid furnishes the average person with sufficient evidence of its purity; while if lacking in any of these qualities he seems to be equally assured of its unfitness for consumption. These tests are entirely useless, and scientific investigations are the only safeguards to a proper water supply.

Filters, as used to render drinking water pure, are a delusion and a snare. The bed of a filter furnishes a desirable soil for the growth of bacteria, and while some of the larger organic particles are removed by filtration, the rapidity with which the micro-organisms increase render it less fit for use.

Distilled water, prepared for medicinal purposes, is chemically pure. It is flat and insipid to the taste, having been deprived of its atmospheric gases. When used as a

beverage it should be aërated. Boiled water is freed from all organic impurities and salts of lime are precipitated. Water for household consumption is derived from five

sources:

1. Rains.

2. Rivers.

3. Surface water and shallow wells.

4. Deep Artesian wells.

5. Springs.

In many large towns and cities a system of reservoirs has been built, fed by springs and streams which have greatly improved water supplies.

Where well water is used, especial attention should be given to the location of the well. It must be of sufficient distance from drains, cesspools, and barnyards to prevent contamination.

Water drawn from large ponds, lakes, or rivers having a bottom of rock, clay, or gravel, usually furnishes a safe supply. The law, nevertheless, requires frequent analyses thus helping, as far as possible, to make healthful conditions prevail.

Water is frequently spoken of as hard or soft. Hard water contains mineral matter to a greater extent than soft water, the amount varying from eight to seventy grains to the gallon.

The hardness is due principally to salts of lime and magnesia. Soft water is free from an excess of these salts, containing but three to four grains to the gallon. Water is the greatest known solvent, and the softer the water the greater its solvent power.