In 1897-98, 117,042 hectares were under vines, the wine production being 2,775,576 hectolitres (the hectolitre equals 26.418 gallons); in 1898-99 there were 117,279 hectares and 1,406,818 hectolitres. About 25 per cent. of Germany's area is woodland; forestry is an industry of great importance, and from it the state derives a large annual revenue.

The mineral wealth of Germany is considerable. There are important mines of coal and iron in Rhenish Prussia, Westphalia, and Silesia, of zinc in Silesia, and of copper and silver in Harz. Coal and iron also occur in Lorraine, iron in Luxemburg, and coal, iron, and silver in Saxony. In general, during the last decade the mining industries have developed greatly. The following figures compare in amount and value the principal minerals taken out in 1889 and 1898:

The production and importation of iron in 1898 amounted to about 7,312,000 tons and 672,000 tons respectively; in 1899, 8,142,000 tons and 1,019,000 tons respectively. The exportation in 1898 was 2,325,000 tons and in 1899, 2,227,000 tons, leaving the amounts for home consumption in the two years 5,659,000 tons and 6,934,000 tons rsepectively.

During the last six or seven years German industries and commerce have shown a steady and rapid development. But in 1900 the American consul-general at Berlin reported that "in several branches of iron and steel manufacture the point of highest prosperity has been passed, production has overtaken the demands of both home and foreign trade, and, in the face of a falling metal market, conservative managers have begun to shorten sail." He also stated that "in addition to the acknowledged overproduction in cement, iron tubing, and various other manufactured products, and the temporary stoppage in exports to China and the South African states, there is the fact that the wide and enormous expansion of industries and commerce has so absorbed German capital that there is now a serious stringency in the money market, which has helped to depress securities of all kinds and embarrass many manufacturers who operate independently of syndicates and combinations. It is well known that German banks finance industrial and commercial enterprises to an extent unknown in any other country; and it is estimated by the Moniteur Industriel that German investments of various kinds in foreign countries now amount to not less than 7,500,000,000 marks ($1,785,000,000), distributed throughout Turkey, Africa, China, Mexico, South America, Canada, and the United States." The consul-general goes on to say: "Notwithstanding her progress and prosperity during the last thirty years, Germany is still poor in comparison with France and England, and her available capital is so wholly invested and actively employed that all share values-even the best-are kept by pressure of the money market inordinately low. Writers in other countries, especially England, have painted the situation in sombre colors, inveighed against the zeal of German banks in financiering industrial and foreign enterprises, and predicted stormy weather for German metal industries in face of the increased cost of fuel and the overshadowing competition of the United States. While these general aspects of the situation are clearly recognized in Germany, there is no outward symptom of trepidation or panic, and business men of all classes face the future with apparent confidence."

The distribution of German capital, mentioned above as being invested in foreign countries, has been estimated as follows: United States, $800,000,000; the Transvaal, $170,000,000; Mexico, $95,200,000; Central America, $59,500,000 (another estimate is as high as $67,000,000); the West Indies, $59,500,000; the east coast of South America, $142,800,000; the west coast, $71,400,000; the north coast, $47,600,000; Turkey, $53,550,000 in industries and $7,140,000 in real estate (these figures not including the Bagdad railway); East Africa, $23,000,000, of which nearly $1,200,000 are invested in Zanzibar; Cape Colony, nearly $10,000,000; North Africa, nearly $3,000,000; China, $70,000,000; Japan, $15,000,000; Australia and Oceanica, $150,

000,000.

The laboring population of Germany is estimated to number about 8,800,000 males

390

and 2,100,000 females; according to the Bureau of Statistics the total number fifteen years ago was about 7,341,000. On the whole, there has been an increase in the nominal wage, yet the American consul at Stettin, writing in March, 1900, on the subject of German labor, made the following generalization: “American labor is paid treble the wages paid German labor in the same calling, and the cost of food is from 10 to 50 per cent. cheaper in the United States than in Germany."

Germany's Food Supply. The meat-inspection bill, which is mentioned in a succeeding paragraph, revived the question of Germany's future food supply. What would be the result if war or some artificial prohibition should practically stop the importation of breadstuffs and meats? Many of the Agrarians hold that the conditions obtaining in former times, when the German states produced nearly their entire supply of bread and meat, might exist again if the large sums representing the profits of foreign exporters to Germany should be expended upon intensive methods of agriculture. They point out that during the past century, while the population of the territory constituting the present German Empire has nearly trebled-the approximate increase being from 20,000,000 to 56,000,000-the agricultural production of the same territory has nearly quadrupled. In the last ten years, by scientific culture and drainage, the rotation of crops, and the freedom from the destructiveness of local wars, the increased production of an acre has been 3 per cent. for barley, 10 per cent. for wheat, 19 per cent. for rye, and 25 per cent. for potatoes. The important questions are, How long can intensive cultivation keep pace with the increasing population? How long may such cultivation continue before the law of diminishing returns begin to operate? The Agrarians seem to be little troubled by these queries. But actual present conditions in no small degree weaken their argument based on the foregoing facts. For while production has become greater, a large and increasing amount of that production is being turned into commodities that can hardly be regarded as life-sustaining-nearly the entire barley crop is malted, and vast quantities of potatoes and corn are consumed in the manufacture of alcohol. Much of the best land of Germany, moreover, is planted to the sugar beet, the product of which is largely exported. Hence, notwithstanding improved farming processes and obstacles to food imports caused by Agrarian influence, imports to Germany in 1899, expressed in metric tons, included the following: Corn, 1,626,595; wheat, 1.370,850; barley, 1,104.349; rye, 561,251; oats, 259,147; potatoes, 214.139; fresh fruits, 143.730; pease, 58.872; pork, 47.961; buckwheat, 26,216; beans, 23.787; beef, 21,752; butter, 11,761; and large quantities of fish, dried fruits, and luxuries. Two conditions remain that present to the Agrarian arguments and propaganda objections more serious and more fundamental. The one is the present state of the German people, who by education and other progress have come to regard as necessities what were formerly luxuries; it is said that to-day they "demand and consume food products probably six or seven times more in market value than the plain fare of their 20,000,000 progenitors of a hundred years ago." The other condition lies in the fact that German activity-an activity that has enabled Germany to take a place among the great world Powers-has become predominantly industrial and commercial, whereas formerly it was predominantly agricultural. An attempt for Germany to produce her own food supply would mean the withdrawal of thousands of young men from the channels of business to the farm; and it is pointed out that, even could this end be compassed, no agricultural development could possibly be compensatory for the economic loss incurred. The Agrarian plan, besides, would probably necessitate largely the planting of the areas which now make possible the beet-sugar export to some other crop, thus curtailing a valuable branch of commerce; while the closing of Germany's doors to foreign foodstuffs would result in retaliatory tariffs that would be well-nigh fatal to German industry.

Commerce. Of the world's trade, amounting to $18,000,000,000, Germany's share is reported to be 10.8 per cent. German foreign trade has been built up largely at the expense of British. This condition has been brought about, in part, at least, by the following causes: German goods that were formerly bought at exceedingly low prices by English merchants, and then resold as English exports, are now shipped directly from the German manufacturer; German goods are often cheaper and sometimes better than the English; German merchants readily adapt their wares to the wants of their customers, and the German commercial representatives are said to have a superior technical knowledge of their business and a greater familiarity with foreign languages; and industrial commissions have been sent to South Africa, South America, Mexico, China, Japan, and other countries to inquire into the conditions and needs of the people.

Imports and exports, exclusive of the precious metals and specie, have been valued as follows:

Imports...
Exports..

1898.

1897. 1899. $1,114.078.000 $1,209,278.000 $1,236,886,500

865,130,000 894,166,000 949.953.300

Germany.

In 1899 the total imports amounted to $1,376,503,500, and the total exports, $1,039,681,300; in 1900 the total imports and exports amounted to $1,388,328,200 and $1,084,159,200 respectively.

The trade with countries of greatest commercial importance, as stated by the American consul-general at Berlin, was in 1899 as follows:

On account of home production there was in 1899 a marked decline in the importation of wheat and rye. Other important commodities have been imported as follows:

The export of textiles for 1899 showed an increase of $11,186,000 over that of 1898. The decrease in the beet-sugar export is largely due to the lessened demand for the German article in the United States. In 1897 the United States received 376,286 tons of German sugar; in 1898, 219,516 tons; in 1899, 153,198 tons.

The value of wine and grapes imported in 1898 was $13,639,542; in 1899, $14,922,362. The value of the same commodities exported in 1898 was $6,733,734; in 1899, $6,606,404.

The following figures, which appeared in a United States consular report, show the amount in metric tons (2204.6 pounds) of nineteen leading staples forming the bulk of German imports from the United States :

392

German trade with Asia-particularly with China and Japan-is increasing. Exports to Asia have been as follows: 1890, $22,901.550; 1897, $32,880,840; 1898, $40,480,706. Imports from Asia: 1890, $39,305,700; 1897, $83.807,178; 1898, $80,661,968. In November, 1900, it was announced that the German Colonial Society had adopted a resolution urging that the new tariff include preferential rates for tea, coffee, cacao, spices, tobacco, and other products imported from the German colonies. It was pointed out that such a measure would be likely to provoke retaliatory tariffs on the part of countries receiving German exports; in particular, it was feared the measure might induce Great Britain to adopt a similar preferential tariff in behalf of her own colonies, which would place certain classes of German goods at a disadvantage in the British market.

Communications.—Only about 2900 miles of the German railways belong to private companies. The rest are owned by the imperial, or state, governments. On March 31, 1899, the railways completed and open for traffic in Germany aggregated 30.731 miles; on March 31, 1900, 31,307 miles. In 1897 the capital invested in railways amounted to 11,935,490,000 marks, and in that year the receipts were 1,684,730,000 marks, and the expenditure 957,674,000 marks. In February, 1900, there were 1274 miles of electric tramway in the empire.

At the beginning of 1898 the inland waterways navigable for vessels of a 3-foot 3-inch draught aggregated 7502 miles. This mileage was divided as follows: Navigable rivers, 4964 miles; canalized rivers, 1236 miles; canals, exclusive of the Kiel Canal, 1241 miles. The Kiel Canal, connecting the North Sea and the Baltic, was opened for traffic in June, 1895. Its length is 61 miles; breadth at the bottom, 72 feet; at the surface, 213 feet; depth, 29 feet 6 inches. The estimated cost of construction was about 156,000,000 marks. During the fiscal year 1899 there passed through the Kiel Canal 25,816 vessels, aggregating 3,117,838 tons; in 1900, 26,279 vessels of 3,488,765 tons. In the latter year about 65 per cent. of the shipping was under the German flag, 10 per cent. British, 8 per cent. Danish, 6 per cent. Swedish, and 3 per cent. Russian, Norwegian, or Dutch.

On June 16, 1900, the new Elbe and Trave Canal, which had been five years in building, at a cost of 24,500,000 marks, and connects the Baltic and North seas, was formally opened by Emperor William. The new canal has a length of 41 miles, an available breadth of 72 feet, and its 7 locks are 8 feet 2 inches deep. The passage of the canal requires from 18 to 21 hours. This waterway is of great importance to the states along the Elbe and to Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Russia. Probably to some extent it will divert traffic from Hamburg, and it may somewhat reduce the revenue of the Kiel Canal.

The German postal and telegraph systems are controlled by the imperial government; exception, however, must be made in regard to the systems of Bavaria and Würtemberg, where the posts and telegraphs are controlled by the governments of those states. The number of post-offices in the whole empire in 1898 was 35.462, and of telegraph offices 22,895. In the year 1898-99 the receipts from posts, telegraphs, and telephones in the empire amounted to 395,559,556 marks, and the expenditure 350,573.304 marks.

Religion and Education.-The principle of religious liberty prevails in Germany; most of the religious orders, however, particularly the order of the Jesuits, have been suppressed. In 1890 the number of Protestants was 31,026,810, or 62.8 per cent., of the population; Roman (and Greek) Catholics, 17,674,921, or 35.8 per cent.; Jews, 567,884, or 1.1 per cent.

Primary education for children between the ages of 6 and 14 is compulsory throughout Germany. Children of school age in 1890 numbered about 8,695,000. For secondary and higher education there are various high schools, gymnasia, etc., and technical schools and universities. The German educational system is, perhaps, the most thorough in the world.

HISTORY.

The Meat-Inspection Bill.-A bill introduced in the Reichstag, providing for the inspection of meat importations in the interest of the public health, was amended in committee in March, 1900, through the pressure of Agrarian influence, so that it severely restricted the importation of meat and provided for the almost absolute exclusion of such importation after 1904. The Agrarians argued that such a law must be enacted for the protection of German farm interests. The bill, however, met the disapproval of the manufacturing and commercial classes; the chambers of commerce in Hamburg, Frankfort-on-Main, and other cities protested against the bill to the emperor and the Reichstag, pointing out its liability to cause the enactment of retaliatory tariffs in other countries. The government also disapproved the partisan nature of the bill as amended by the Agrarians, and it was said that Prince Hohenlohe, in case of its enactment, threatened to resign the chancellorship. Nevertheless, the bill passed its second reading on March 8 by a vote of 168 to 99. But in

Germany.

the latter part of April the government effected a compromise with the supporters of the bill, which was finally enacted on May 23 by a vote of 163 to 123. The bill in its final form did not please the Agrarians, most of whom voted against it; the minority also included a number of Radicals and Socialists. The new law forbids the importation of canned meats and sausages, but provides that, with certain restrictions, fresh and prepared meat may be imported. The law will remain in force until December 31, 1903, or until it shall be superseded after that date by new legislation. The passage of the bill caused not a little excitement among the Western stock raisers of the United States; and on May 28 Mr. Bailey, a member of Congress from Kansas, introduced in the House of Representatives a bill, providing for the imposition of an additional 10-per-cent. duty on all German importations into the United States. The bill did not become law. The German authorities held that the meat-inspection law was a sanitary measure, and was not aimed at American trade, and pointed out that the law was applicable impartially to all nations. Since, however, the importations of American meat products to Germany are greater than those of all other countries combined, the United States will be the greatest sufferer. The passage of the meat-inspection bill was feared in Hungary as well as in the United States; and not only because Hungarian meats would be excluded from the German market. For the Hungarians feared that a retaliatory tariff against German manufactures would be established in the United States, and that, in consequence, German products would to some extent be turned to Hungary, and that an undesired influence upon the latter's economic relations would result.

The Lex Heinze.-This measure, introduced in the Reichstag by the government, and supported by the Clericals and Conservatives, called forth as much disapproval among the literary and artistic classes of Germany as the meat-inspection bill did among the manufacturing and commercial classes. The original Lex Heinze was introduced in 1892 as a result of the revelations made during the trial of the notorious criminal Heinze, from whom the bill derives its name. The bill was intended to regulate public morality, and, in an amended form, provided penalties for the publication, sale, or exposure of books, pictures, and other works of art alleged to be offensive to decency. It also provided for the censorship of theatrical and other entertainments alleged to be of an objectionable character. In general, artists and literary men regarded the measure as a grave infringement upon the rights of their professions. Large mass-meetings were held in protest against the bill, which was also widely opposed by the public press. The measure met the strong opposition not only of those it most directly affected, but of many prominent officials and such notable scholars as Theodor Mommsen, the historian, and Friedrich Paulsen, the philosopher. In the Reichstag so great was the opposition of the Radicals and Socialists that they adopted obstructionist tactics, which theretofore had been almost unknown in that body. Finally, at the urgent request of Count Ballestrem, president of the Reichstag, the bill was dropped by the Clericals and Conservatives, who substituted a new measure, which, like the other, had the general purpose of regulating public morality, but which omitted the obnoxious clauses concerning police supervision of public entertainments and modified the clauses concerning the exposure and sale of objectionable books and pictures, so that they apply only to minors. In this form the bill was enacted on May 22.

The Naval Bill.-On December 11, 1899, Prince Hohenlohe, the imperial chancellor, announced in the Reichstag that a bill to amend the navy act of 1898 would be introduced. This bill, he said, would provide for an increase of the reserve and of the fleet in home waters and for the doubling of the number of battle-ships on foreign stations. The bill was brought in and was advocated by Count von Bülow, the minister for foreign affairs, "on the ground that recent political events, as well as the increase in naval armaments elsewhere, demanded a commensurate progress in behalf of German commercial and colonial enterprise." The measure was favored by the greater part of the Conservatives, moderate Radicals, and National Liberals. It was opposed by the Agrarians, Clericals, and Social Democrats, who argued that navy legislation should not be enacted before the expiration of the so-called "sexennate" of 1898 (the navy act mentioned above). On January 25, 1900, the Bundesrath approved the bill, which provided practically for the doubling of Germany's naval strength by 1916. The cost of such an increase would be 1,600,000,000 marks, of which 783,000,000 marks were to be obtained by the negotiation of a loan and the remainder from the usual revenues. In the Reichstag the bill was referred to the budget committee, which, upon a motion of the Clericals, decided to reduce by thirteen the number of cruisers proposed for the reserve and the foreign service. As the Clericals controlled the political balance, the fate of the naval bill was in their hands; and as a condition of their support they introduced certain measures providing for the partial payment of the increased expenditure to be incurred. These measures included "an increase in the tax upon negotiable paper, lottery tickets, imported malt and spirituous liquors and cigars, as well as a special tax on