on June 18 to be in violation of existing commercial treaties between the two Powers. Russia has since notified the United States of its readiness to return to normal relations. The Russian tariff upon American iron and steel goods would prove prohibitive in presence of European competition. Government aid to manufacture appears in the contemplated export tariff on sawn wood, which is likely to force German factors of wooden articles to locate within the Russian border. In 1899 Germany imported sawn and cut wood from Russia to the value of $9,750,000.

AREA AND POPULATION.-Russia is the largest continuous empire in the world, occupying about one-seventh of the earth's total land surface, and covering Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. Its area is 8,645,803 square miles, of

make a grand total of about 130,000,000. Of this population about three-fourths are Slavs, and the balance are Poles, Finns, Germans in the Baltic provinces and in the South; Jews to the number of 3,500,000 in the West, and Tartars with other Mongolian tribes in the Southwest. Among the cities the population of St. Petersburg was 1,267,023, of Moscow 1,035,664, of Warsaw 638,208, of Odessa 405,041, of Lodz 315,209, of Riga 282,943, and of Kieff 247,432. The immigration of foreigners in 1896 was 6,906; the emigration of Russians was 27,084. The rate of increase is very rapid, being 74 per cent since 1859, and 1,913,281 for the single year 1896, which year saw no territorial accessions, and that in spite of the high mortality, which is over 42 per cent before reaching five years of age. Of the total population of 130 millions in 1897 only 16 millions lived in towns of over 1,000 population, which is but 13 per cent, while the population in France of towns over even 2,000 is 37.4 per cent, and in Germany 49.9 also over 2,000. This argues economic and social backwardness in Russia. Russia in Asia comprises the following divisions:

THE CZAR OF RUSSIA, NICHOLAS II.

which only 2,081,025 square miles lie in Europe. This European part consists of one vast plain marked to the north and northwest by immense forests and numerous lakes, to the south by dry and treeless steppes, while between lies the wheat-land. The greatest rivers of Europe traverse these plains, and form the water highways of Russia. The forests cover not less than one-third the area of Russia, and contain pine, fir, oak and some linden and beech.

According to the last imperial census taken February 9, 1897, the population of European Russia was 94,188,750, of Poland 9,442,590, and of Finland 2,483,249, making a total of 106,114,589. The addition of Asiatic Russia would

GOVERNMENT.-The emperor, or czar, of Russia is a hereditary absolute monarch, uniting in himself the supreme legislative, judicial and executive powers. Their administration is done through four great councils. The first is the Council of Ministers, each of whom is appointed by and is directly responsible to the emperor, while there is no prime minister. The present ministers are as follows: 1. Minister of the Imperial House and Imperial Domain, General W. Freedericksz. 2. Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count Lamsdorf. 3. Minister of War, General Kuropatkin. 4. Minister of Navy, Vice-Admiral Tyrtoff. 5. Minister of the Interior, M. Sipyaghin. 6. Minister of Public Instruction, M. Vannovsky. 7. Minister of Finance, M. Witte. 8. Minister of Justice, M. Muravieff. 9. Minister of Agriculture and State Domains, M. Yermoloff. 10. Minister of Public Works and Railways, Prince Khilkoff. 11. Department of General Control, General Lobko. 12. Procurator-General of the Holy Synod, M. Pobyedonostseff. 13. Minister and State Secretary for Finland, M. de Plehwe. Besides these ministers, three Grand Dukes and many functionaries, chiefly ex-ministers, swell

The

the size of this council. The second council is the Council of State, or of the empire, which in 1900 had 93 members, also appointed by the emperor, and includes the ministers and several -now four-members of the imperial family. Its use is simply for consultation on matters of legislation submitted by the ministers, and on the budget. As such it has no power of initiative. It is divided into four departments, namely, those of Legislation, Civil and Church Administration, State's Economy and Industry, Sciences and Commerce, this last having been established as recently as January, 1900. third council is the Ruling Senate, consisting of persons of high rank or office appointed by the emperor. It both promulgates laws and forms the high court of justice. But there presides over each of its six sections some lawyer of eminence as representative of the czar, and without his signature no decision would have force. It also reviews the acts of the governors and settles their disputes with zemstvos. The fourth council is the Holy Synod, which comprises the metropolitans and bishops of the Russian Church, to which is intrusted the superintendence of religion.

For administration Russia is divided into governments, each under a governor-general who represents the czar and holds supreme civil and military control. In European Russia local affairs are largely in the hands of the people, grouped as mirs (communes) to the number of 107,676. The land held by a mir is divided among the families according to the number of their workers, but the mir is responsible for the taxes. The mir assembly is formed by all householders, and decides all communal affairs. These mirs unite into volosts (cantons), each containing about 2,000 householders, and managed by an assembly of delegates from the mirs, supervized, however, by an imperial official. The provincial assembly, called the zemstvo, is composed of landed nobles and delegates elected by other landowners, by householders in the towns, and by the peasants. The powers of such zemstvos extend to education, roads, saloons, public health, taxation, etc. Their freedom is limited by the governor. Cities and towns possess an organization similar to that of the zemstvos.

Briefly stated, the Russian government consists of two distinct elements: 1. The national government is a pure autocracy, more precisely a bureaucracy with a czar as its glorified figurehead. These officials, with a vast number of subordinates, are drawn from the educated higher class, numbering some ten millions. There is no Russian middle class. 2. The remaining 120 millions are peasants, who until 1861 were serfs, and 80 per cent of whom can neither read nor write. The local government of these peasants is a pure democracy, as shown above in the account of the mir. But the Russian peasant is peaceable and docile and easily falls a prey to the combined tyranny of Church and State, through their control equally of press, platform and pulpit. He is the poorest peasant in Europe, earning only 12 cents a day, his house is a hut, his food rye bread and mushroom soup, and his average savings deposit is only $1.98, while the German is $36 and the Swiss $62. He is, moreover, dirty, idle, dishonest, untruthful, and the worst drunk

ard in Europe. Mr. W. T. Stead, the English champion of Russia, could defend it from certain unmentionable charges only by the desperate consideration that, if such were the case, Russians could not be men. The birth rate is the highest in Europe, so that the population can double in 46 years.

FINLAND is a grand-duchy, which was ceded to Russia in 1809, but had preserved its national parliament, summoned by the Czar of Russia to consider laws of his proposal and under his veto, but needed to change the constitution or to levy taxes. The Senate, which administers the laws, is nominated by the Czar. (For recent history see p. 260.)

POLAND lost its constitution in 1830, its separate government in 1864, and in 1868 was by ukase of the Czar absolutely incorporated with Russia, use of the Polish language for public purposes being prohibited.

THE BALTIC PROVINCES have likewise suffered gradual curtailment of their ancient rights, ending in 1889 with absorption into Russian administration.

BOKHARA, in Central Asia, is under the suzerainty of Russia. Its sovereign is the Ameer Sayid Abdul Ahad, who was educated in Russia. Russian influence began in 1866 and became exclusive in 1873. Its population is about 2.5 million, and their religion Islamism. The army numbers 11,000. No spirituous liquors are admitted to Bokhara. The Russian Trans-Caspian Railway runs through the country.

KHIVA is another vassal State to Russia, lying south of the Aral Sea. Its sovereign, Seyid Mahomed Rahim Khan, succeeded his father 1865. In 1872 Russia used a pretext to make war on Khiva, and compel subordination with heavy war indemnity. The population is estimated at 800,000, half of whom are nomad Turkomans. The religion is Islamism; the army numbers 2,000; the produce is silk and cotton.

KWANG-TUNG is the name given by Russia to Port Arthur, Talienwan and certain territory to the north of them, which she leased in 1898 from China for a term of 25 years, which may be extended by common consent. In 1899 Russian Imperial ukase created Kwang-tung a province, and placed it under control of a governor, while Chinese troops were withdrawn. Port Arthur, a naturally impregnable stronghold, is closed against both war and merchant vessels of other nations than China and Russia. One part of the harbor of Talienwan is left open to merchant vessels of all nations. Near here a new city, Dalnii, has been founded, which will have railway connection with Niuchwang, Mukden and Beduné.

RELIGION. The state Church of Russia is the Græco-Roman, ruled by a synod at the head of which is, not a patriarch as with the sister Churches of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch and Alexandria, but the Czar, who appoints to every office on proposal by the bishops, though he claims no authority in theology. This Russian Church differs from the Roman, in denying the papal supremacy, in authorizing all to read the vernacular Scriptures. and in requiring marriage of the clergy. Besides 96 million Greek Catholics, there are 12 million Roman Catholics mostly in Poland; 7 million Protes

tants, mostly German Lutherans, settled in the Baltic Provinces; five million Jews, mostly in the West and Southwest, and 12 million Mohammedans in the East and South. The Jews and Dissenters from the Russian Church have been and are persecuted by both the State and society. The Dissenters are estimated at 12 millions.

EDUCATION.-The University of Moscow numbers 4,407 students, of St. Petersburg 3,788, of Kiev 2,604, of Kharkov 1,387, of Yuryev 1,208, of Warsaw 1,114, of Kazan 879, of Odessa 709 and of Tomsk 401, making a total January, 1899, of 16,497. Other higher institutions of learning are 6 theological seminaries, 6 medical schools, 5 law schools, 5 technical schools with 3,685 students in 1898, 7 technical institutes, 5 military schools. In the middle schools, namely, gymnasia, real schools, normal schools, etc., there were, in 1899, 262,000 students, with others in 11 technical and 16 commercial schools for which no returns are available. The State contributes 25 per cent of the expenses of these middle schools, the students about 30 per cent, and the local assemblies contribute the remainder. The number of elementary schools in 1896 was 78,724, of teachers 91,105 male, with 22,879 females, and of pupils 2,948.274 boys, with 831,544 girls.

JUSTICE.-Reform in 1864 established assize courts with juries, elective justices of peace, assemblies of such justices for appeals, appeal courts for cases not tried by jury, and a final court of cassation. An early reaction prevented this system from general application. A law of 1885 restricted the irremovability of magistrates, one of 1889 suppressed juries in certain

In the same year 17,013 exiles reached Tiumen in Siberia, whence they are further distributed. In 1897 the expenditure for prisons reached $6,908.

LIQUOR TRAFFIC.-Drunkenness, while a common disgrace to Europe and America, has assumed such proportion in Russia as to "threaten the impoverishment of the whole agricultural population." As such it became the object of solicitude to the paternal government of Russia, and has been dealt with in a very energetic and wise fashion. Here we cannot do better than quote, with the exclusion of one table, the compact report made by the United States Consul-General, May, 1900.

The Russian government has for many years

been laboring and discussing means to diminish the almost universal use of liquor among the laboring classes, as one Minister of Finance put it, "to save the population from the baneful influence of the innkeepers, who, in order to make large profits, adulterated their spirits with noxious and deleterious substances which were proving ruinous to the lower classes. The average peasant was not content with remaining in a public house until he had spent his last farthing, but often pawned his clothes, furniture and future crops. The public houses were acknowledged to be the most powerful agents of ruin and disorganization in the economic life of the Russian people and threatened the impoverishment of the whole agricultural population."

One of the first steps toward preventing the unrestricted sale of liquor was to confine its sale to places where food was required to be furnished with each order for liquor, in order to prevent taking one drink after another without food; severe penalties were also provided for selling on credit, for receiving articles in pawn for drinks, or for bartering spirits for produce or future labor, etc. The receiving of stolen property entailed the loss of license, and provision was made for closing public houses that evaded or violated the laws.

The government established a number of shops in various parts of cities for the sale of vodki, brandy and spirits in corked bottles. It is not permitted to be drunk on the premises, but thirsty customers purchase small bottles and step outside of the door, draw the cork, drink the contents, and return the empty bottle, for which they receive a few kopecks. The number of these shops is regulated by the population. The license was increased from 150 rubles to 1,100 rubles ($77 to $566) for public houses, which reduced the number one-half.

It was first proposed in 1885 that the government should assume control of the sale of liquor; but the revenue from the sale of liquor amounted at that time to 275,000,000 rubles ($174,900,000) per year, and it was argued that government monopoly would reduce this so materially as to affect the revenues. Hence it was delayed until the famine of 1891, and the lamentable state of things it revealed hastened the reform, since which time the new system has been organized and introduced in half of the empire, including thirty-five provinces, covering 1,320,000 square miles, with a population of 61,000,000, an area greater than the United Kingdom, France, Germany and the Netherlands.

Under the present system the government dictates the quantity and quality of spirits manufactured, purchases a very large percentage of the output, and permits the sale of the surplus under proper regulations, for manufacturing purposes, with the intention of furnishing the consumer with pure spirits, thus mitigating and preventing such abuses as are directly attributable to the excessive use of bad liquor and improving the morality and prosperity of the masses. The Minister of Finance has repeatedly declared that the purpose of the gov ernment in controlling the liquor business was not intended to produce any direct increase of the revenue; whatever increase there might be would come in consequence of the prevention

of abuses which could be avoided only by government control.

The Russian peasant classes drink only vodki, which is distilled from rye and is sold at the average price of $1.40 per gallon, whether in quantities of 1 or 10,000 gallons. The government requires that the proof of vodki and brandy shall be 40 per cent and that of spirits of wine from 90 to 95 per cent.

The official report for 1898 has just been made public and states that the amount of capital employed during that year was $148,200,000. There were 1,381 brandy distilleries, 252 spirit distilleries, and 27,120 places where distilled liquors were sold. Besides this, fermented liquor was sold at 14,699 saloons. The bottling was carried on at 357 storehouses. The sales amounted to 84,003,752 gallons, the gross receipts being $117,326,270, the expenses $36,594,870, and the excise duty $64,117,500. The net income to the government from sales was $16,737,500.

In governments where the sale of liquor is controlled by the government, temperance societies have been organized, with Prince Oldenburg, a distinguished philanthropist of St. Pe tersburg, as president. These have opened reading rooms with libraries and restaurants near public gardens and squares-where large numbers of working people congregate-and sell cheap and good food with such temperance drinks as tea, milk and kvass made from cranberries and black bread. One of these societies has constructed two "floating restaurants," one of which will seat six hundred people and the other three hundred. These boats are towed to points on the Neva where workmen are employed or congregate. An open theater has been established on Petrovsky Island, where a good class of plays is given at a nominal price. Some of the public parks are also supplied with apparatus to encourage open-air sports. The following will show the growth of the movement:

Of the above, $370,800 have been expended in the province of St. Petersburg.

It is expected that, by the end of 1902, every one of the seventy-eight provinces of Russia, including Siberia, will have been included in the sphere of activity of these societies.

The Société Russe d'Hygiène Publique has peen seeking information from members in the various provinces where the government has control of the manufacture and sale of spirits as to the effects of the law and the decrease in drunkenness. The friends of the measure confess that the testimony thus far is so conflicting as to be unsatisfactory, but they hope for better results after the law has been inaugurated in all the provinces of Russia.

The leading newspaper of Russia has repeatedly stated that the most important impediment in the way of Russia's rapid progress lies in those "twin relics of barbarism"-illiteracy and intemperance among the peasant classes, which comprise 75 per cent of the population.

1898. $52,614,337

33,114,654

3,224,686

3,932,071

15,722,267

The following table shows the financial results of the working of the government monopoly for 1898:

Receipts and expenditures

Total redemption......

FINANCE.-The increase of 721,267,566 rubles (the ruble now equals only 51.5 cents) in the revenue during the ten years 1890-1899, was due to the following sources in order of their importance.

Receipts from railways bought by the state, 270.1 million rubles, but nearly all this item is consumed by exploitation and payments on obligations; from the sale of spirits, made a government monopoly in 1895, 99.9 millions; from import duties, 77.1 millions; from sugar, 45.9; from excise on wine and beer, 41.9; from duties, 35.9; from state domains, 32.1; from state monopolies, 32.1; from direct taxes, 30.4; from indirect taxes, 28.8.

The budget estimates for the years 1900 and 1901 are as follows:

To meet extraordinary expenditure from free balance of treasury.

Grand total revenue..