THE CURRENT ENCYCLOPEDIA VOL. I. No. 3. SEPTEMBER 15, 1901 ABBEY, EDWIN A., the well-known American painter, was made conspicuous early in the year by a commission from King Edward VII. to paint the only official picture of the coronation in Westminster Abbey that will be made. Mr. Abbey was born in Philadelphia, 1852, and educated at the Philadelphia Academy of Fine Arts. In 1871 he entered the service of Harper & Bros. as an illustrator, and went to England for them in 1878, where he now resides at Fairfield, Gloucestershire. He first exhibited at the British Royal Academy in 1890 with his "May Day Morn." Other notable pieces of his are "Flametta's Song," "Richard ill," and "Lady Anne," "Hamlet," "The Holy Grail," which forms a wall decoration in the Boston Library, etc. He has illustrated new editions of Herrick's Poems, "She Stoops to Conquer," "Old Songs," "Quiet Life," and comedies of Shakespeare. In 1883 he was elected member of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water-Colors; in 1889 he received a first-class medal at the Paris Universal Exposition; in 1894 he became Associate of the Royal Society of Painters in WaterColors, and in 1896 obtained the associateship in the Royal Academy, followed by membership-R. A.-two years later. Mr. Abbey then first attracted public attention by his rare power and originality as an illustrator, especially in his visualization of medieval and renaissance scenes, where he has shown remarkable historical detail without sacrificing the larger properly painter qualities of formal beauty and of sentiment, "the passion and the life, whose fountains are within." Thus he is very far from being the mere "costume painter" that forgets the soul inside. A glance at the Ophelia in his Hamlet, where distraught mind is so aptly expressed by unfocused eyes and uncoordinated arms, would alone suffice to dispel such an erroneous estimate. Rather do his illustrations of the "myriad-minded poet" serve to interpret to less imaginative minds the real sense and force of the scene. In short, Mr. M. H. Spielmann "acclaims Mr. Abbey as one of the most gifted pen-draughtsmen who ever lived." Mr. Abbey's ability to turn from the black-and-white medium, to which he had for many years been devoted, to color in both water and oil, was surprising. Here he is remarkable for unusual and daring combinations of color, in which consequently the individual salience and brightness are more conspicuous than the harmony, though this last is never sacrificed. In point of form Mr. Abbey inclines to the grace, fancy and exquisiteness of Botticelli, rather than to the statuesqueness and mental depth of Michelangelo. Hence come his delicate, sensitive faces, with slender, supple bodies clad in curiously winding draperies. ARCH ROCK AND HELL GATE, DESTRUCTION OF.-Arch Rock in San Francisco Bay was destroyed Aug. 15, 1901. This great rock stood between Lime Point and Alcatraz Island. It was many acres in extent, all but its summit was covered with water, and it was a serious obstruction to navigation. The work of destruction has involved much time and careful work; over 60,000 pounds of nitro-gelatin were used and the discharge was effected by electricity. The concussion was terrific, being heard and felt far inland; a column of water and stone was thrown more than a thousand feet above the waters of the bay. Large quantities of fish were killed. This is the greatest feat of engineering for the purpose of removing obstacles to navigation which has been accomplished since the blowing up of the rocks at Hell Gate, or Hurl Gate, a narrow part of East River, New York. This point derived its name from the great peril to which mariners were subjected in mak (Copyright 1901, by the MODERN RESEARCH SOCIETY.) ing the passage, the reefs encroaching upon the channels to such an extent that violent currents were caused by them, and according to some reports one sailing vessel out of every fifty sustained more or less damage by being forced upon the rocks or shoals, and according to others fifty vessels went on shore in two months. A part of the work of clearing this dangerous channel was accomplished Sept. 24, 1876, when Hallet's Point Reef was destroyed. The cubic contents of the roof and piers of this rock amounted to 63,135 cubic yards, and the amount of explosives used in the work were: The explosion lasted three seconds and was marked by a vast mass of foaming water composed of numerous distinct spouts, rising in the air to the height of 40 or 50 feet, while fragments of rock, mingled with mud, were projected 15 or 20 feet higher, accompanied by a thick cloud of black smoke. This was on one side of the east channel, and on the other side was the great Middle Reef, commonly called Flood Rock, which was blown to pieces Oct. 10. 1885. Flood Rock covered an expanse of nine acres, and there were 21,670 feet of tunneling in galleries whose floors lay from 50 to 64 feet below mean low tide; there were walls from 10 to 24 feet thick between them, which were supported by 467 columns of rock, each 15 feet square. These galleries were charged with 240,399 pounds of rack-a-rock (a substance formed by mixing 79 parts of finely ground chlorate of potash and 21 parts of dinitro-benzole) and 42,331 pounds of dynamite. There were 11,789 drill holes in the reef and 772 in the pillars, and their total length was 113,102 feet, or more than 20 miles. The explosion was effected by electricity, and the whole area of the reef was shattered. The water rose 150 feet, and rock from 40 to 50 feet. The total cost of the final blast at Hallet's Point was $81,092.24. At Flood Rock it was only $106,509.93, though the blast was 5.6 times as great. EDMUND AUDRAN. cot," which was first presented in 1881, and became so popular in this country. The most popular air in this opera was called "When I behold," but it was better known as "The Gobble Duet." "The Great Mogul," 1883; "The Paradise of Mahomet," 1887; and several others were produced by the trio. Audran also composed the music for "Miss Helyett," an opera in three acts. In 1893 he composed an elaborate mass, which was sung at Marseilles and at Paris. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.-The largest country of Europe, after Russia. The area of Austria, including fourteen provinces, is 115,903 square miles, and the area of Hungary is 125,039 square miles, making a total of 240.942 square miles. The population in 1890 was: Of Austria, 23,895,413; of Hungary, 17,463,473; total, 41,358.886. Distributed according to language, the people of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy were: German Audran was better known in the United States as the composer of the music for the opera "La Mascot" than by any of his other works. He was born at Lyons on April 11, 1842. He entered the Niedermeyer School in 1856, where he obtained several prizes. In 1881 he followed his father to Marseilles, where he became choirmaster in the Church of St. Joseph. About that time he composed several comic operas, among them "The Bear and the Pascha," adapted from a vaudeville by Scribe, 1862; "Chercheuse d'Esprit," 1864; "Nivernaise," 1866; "The Little Poucet," 1868. In 1881 Audran went to Paris and wrote the music for several comic operas. Chival and Duru became collaborators with him about that time, and together they produced "The Mas Slovak Slovenian Servian and Croatian The following table gives statistics relating to the area and population of the various provinces of Austria in 1890. Returns of the last census are not at hand: PROVINCES. The Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have been under the AustroHungarian government since 1878, have an area of 23,262 square miles and a population of 1,590,000. The census of Dec. 31, 1900, shows a gain of nearly 10 per cent. in the population of Austria and Hungary since 1890. The total for Austria-Hungary is 46,890,831 inhabitants, distributed as follows: Austria, 26,107,300; Hungary, 17,203,531; Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1,590,000. GOVERNMENT.-Previous to 1825 the Austrian monarchy was practically an absolutism. Gradually the "system of paternal oppression" was broken down, and political agitation brought liberal reforms. Louis Kossuth, Francis Deak and other patriots led the movement for constitutional liberty, which culminated in the revolution of 1848. The absolutist régime was only partly destroyed. There was a reaction in 1849, and for ten years more democratic ideas made but little headway in Austria. However, the old aristocratic order was gone. The constitutional system dates from 1860. From this time to 1867, when the new constitution giving the people some share in the government was adopted, the dual monarchy of Austro-Hungary passed through a critical period, during which the constitution was frequently changed. Since 1867 Austria and Hungary have been two distinct states, with a common sovereign, who is a constitutional monarch. Austria, like Great Britain, has no written constitution. Hungary has a written charter or constitutional code subscribed to by the sovereign in 1867. The compact between Austria and Hungary was ratified that year by the Austrian Reichsrath and the Hungarian Parliament. Several statutes were then enacted by these two bodies, determining the relations of the two countries. "These laws regulate the structure and functions of the joint government, but they do not form a constitution in the sense of a single authoritative document, for, although alike in substance, they are not identical in form." Austria's administrative and legislative affairs are in the hands of the Emperor and the Reichsrath. The Reichsrath consists of two chambers, the House of Lords and the House of Representatives. The upper house (Herren haus) is composed of 225 members-princes, nobles, ecclesiastical dignitaries and famous personages appointed by the Emperor for life. The lower house has 425 members, elected by the citizens of the various provinces for six years. The Reichsrath meets every year and deals with all matters of civil and criminal law in the Austrian Empire. There are diets in the provinces, whose powers are limited to local affairs. The Kingdom of Hungary has a parliament which meets annually. The upper house, or Table of Magnates, is composed of 445 peers, bishops and high officials. The lower house, or Table of Deputies, is made up of 453 representatives, elected every five years. Of these 40 are delegates of Croatia and Slavonia. Besides the Austrian Reichsrath and the Hungarian Parliament, which are independent bodies, there are two deliberative assemblies. known as the Delegations, whose members meet once a year to interchange opinions on the common affairs of the two states. Of the 120 members, 40 are chosen from the upper houses of the Dual Monarchy, and 80 from the lower houses. Half of them are from Austria and half from Hungary. The Delegations meet alternately in Vienna and Buda Pesth. The 60 members from Austria and the 60 from Hungary have separate sessions for discussion, and afterward hold joint sessions for voting on questions of public policy. The ruler of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is not an absolute sovereign. He co-operates with the national and local assemblies in ob taining such legislation as is good for the empire. He is aided in the administration of public affairs common to the two states by four ministers or heads of departments. The Ministry for Austria consists of eight members, and there are nine departments in the Hungarian Ministry. "The powers of the Emperor," says Lowell in his "Governments and Parties in Continental Europe," Vol. II., p. 76, "are legally much the same as in other constitutional monarchies. His sanction is required for the enactment of laws. He has power to make treaties; to issue ordinances; to appoint the officials; to create peers; to grant pardons and amnesties, and to summon, adjourn and dissolve the various legislative bodies. The fundamental laws declare that he governs by means of responsible ministers, and by statute all his acts must be countersigned by a minister of state." In Hungary the King's acts and appointments require the countersignature of a minister living at Buda Pesth. The reigning sovereign of Austria-Hungary is Francis Joseph I. (born 1830), grandson of Emperor Francis I. He has the threefold title: "Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia, etc., and Apostolic King of Hungary." The monarch is the connecting link of these countries. He was proclaimed Emperor of Austria after the abdication of his uncle, Ferdinand I., in 1848, and was crowned King of Hungary in 1867. Bohemia was formerly a separate kingdom, and another large province, Galicia, was once a part of Poland. Francis Joseph belongs to the historic house of Habsburg, the imperial family of Austria, and is a descendant of Count Rudolf von Habsburg, who became king of Germany in 1273. After many vicissitudes the house of Habsburg lost the crown of Germany early in the nineteenth century. It was for several centuries closely allied with the Church of Rome, and many of the sovereigns filled the throne of the Holy Roman Empire. As a result of the war between Austria and Prussia in 1866, Austria was excluded from the German confederation. The Emperor-King has a civil list of 9,300,000 florins (about $4.500,000), paid out of the revenues of the realm. The Common Ministry of Austria-Hungary consists of four departments: Foreign Affairs, Count Goluchowski, Privy Councillor, appointed May 16, 1895: War, General Krieghammer, Privy Councillor, appointed Sept. 23, 1893; Finance, Benjamin de Kallay, Privy Councillor, appointed June 4, 1882; Common Court of Public Accounts, Dr. Ernest von Plener, Privy Councillor, appointed July 10, 1895. These ministers are held responsible for the performance of their official duties by the Delegations. The eight ministers of Austria are: President and Minister of the Interior, Dr. Koerber; Minister for Railways, Dr. von Wittek; Minister of Finance, Chevalier von Kriaziolucki; Minister of National Defence, Field-marshal von Welsersheimb; Minister of Justice, Chevalier von Kindinger; Minister of Commerce, Dr. Francis Stibral: Minister of Instruction and Worship, Dr. von Hartel; Minister without portfolio, Chevalier von Chledowski. There are nine members of the Hungarian Ministry: Finance, Dr. L. de Lukács, appointed Jan. 15, 1895: National Defence, Baron G. Fejérváry, appointed Oct. 28, 1884; Count E. Széchényi, appointed Dec. 20, 1898; Interior, Coloman de Széll, appointed Feb. 26, 1899; Education and Public Worship, Dr. J. de Wlassics, appointed Jan. 15, 1895; Justice, Dr. A. Plosz, appointed Feb. 26, 1899; Industry and Commerce, Alexander de Hegedus, appointed Feb. 26, 1899; Agriculture, Dr. Ignatius de Daranyi, appointed Nov. 2, 1895; Minister for Croatia and Slavonia, Ervin de Cseh, appointed Dec. 10, 1898. AGRICULTURE.-More than half of the population of Austria are engaged in the occupations of agriculture and forestry. The best farming provinces are Dalmatia, Silesia. Moravia, Bukowina, Bohemia and Galicia. The least productive are Salzburg and Tyrol. The total area cultivated in 1899 was 69,877,920 acres, distributed as follows: Arable lands, 37 per cent.; woodland, 34 per cent.; pastures and meadows, 25 per cent.; gardens, 1 per cent., and vineyards, nearly 1 per cent. Of the total area under forest, 24,174,945 acres, there are 16,866,185 acres under pines. From recent returns concerning the distribution of property in Austria, it appears that of the total area of the country about 71 per cent. belongs to small proprietors and the rest (34,000 square miles) to large landowners. There was a considerable falling-off in the yield of the principal grain crops in 1900, as compared with 1899. Official statistics for the two years are given in the following table: The In Hungary more than three-fourths of the population are engaged in agriculture and forestry (including the families and servants of farmers, the proportion is 76 per cent.). landed property includes about 79,863,053 acres, of which less than five per cent. is unfertile. It is distributed as follows: Arable land, 41 per cent.: woods, 27 per cent.; meadows and pastures, 23 per cent.: gardens, 1 per cent., and vineyards, 1 per cent. (in round numbers). Recent estimates of crops in Hungary show a considerable falling-off from the harvest of 1900. The figures for the two years are: goats, 32,767,085 fowls and 769,074 beehives. The value of honey and wax produced in 1899 was 3,279,312 crowns (about $818,000). Of late years the poultry industry has rapidly developed in Hungary. The total of 32,765,000 fowls enumerated in 1895 included ducks, pigeons, geese and turkeys. The poultry enumerated in Hungary (exclusive of Croatia and Slavonia) in 1884 comprised 21,681,000 domestic fowls, 5.630,000 geese, 2,674,000 ducks, 2,246,000 pigeons and 683,000 turkeys. Sheep-breeding has considerably declined in Hungary during the three last decades. In 1870 the number of sheep was 15,070,000; in 1880 there were 9,838,000, and in 1895, 8,122,681. This diminution in Hungarian flocks is due in part to the fall in the price of wool caused by large imports from Argentina. In 1899 there were 79,828 families engaged in silk culture. The value of the produce of cocoons was 2,082,791 crowns (about $500,000). The wine production of Austria in 1898 was 50,160,000 gallons; of Hungary, 23,760,000 gallons. In 1899 the wine production of the two countries was 79,200,000 gallons; in 1900, it was 135,960,000. MINERAL PRODUCTION.-The mineral output of Austria amounts to nearly $80,000,000 per annum, of which more than 90 per cent. is represented by such products as coal, iron, salt, petroleum and ozocerite. The production of gold is about 135 pounds yearly: of silver, about 80,052 pounds, valued at $800,000. The returns for 1900 are not at hand. The chief mineral products of 1899 (in metric tons and crowns) were: bituminous coal produced (11.455.138 tons) was $18,168,550. Of coke, 1,226,909 tons were produced, valued at $4,372,599; the two provinces producing most of it being Silesia and Moravia. The mineral wax known as ozocerite is mined in large quantities in Galicia. In 1897 there were 42 mining concerns, employing 5,413 operatives. The year's output was 17,068,920 pounds, valued at about $1,331,375, and the exports amounted to $774,008. In 1899 the exports were worth $872,494, and of refined ozocerite, $239,931. The output of Hungary's chief minerals and metals (in metric tons and dollars) in 1899 Metric tons. Dollars. 1,965 34.205 was: Antimony, ore Antimony, crude and regulus ... |