By the new Constitution, State Elections were brought on even years, and in 1882 the Democrats swept the State and elected Stoneman by 23,519, which landslide was due to the Railroad question and Chinese Immigration. In 1884 Blaine carried the State by 13.181. In 1886 Bartlett carried the State by a Democratic victory of 652 out of 195,660 votes cast.

In 1888 the Republicans chose their electors by a plurality of 7,111 votes out of 250,220 cast. In 1890 Markham, Republican Governor, was elected by 7,945 plurality of 252.457. In 1892 the Presidential election was closely contested, Cleveland winning by only 141 out of 269,457, and the margin so close that one Republican elector was returned. In the State election of 1894 the Democratic candidate for Governor was chosen by 1.206 plurality.

In 1896 McKinley carried the State by nearly 2,000 majority in a total vote of 298,756. In 1898 the Republican candidate for Governor, H. T. Gage, carried the State by a majority of 23.941, and with him the whole Republican State ticket.

Peter H. Burnett..Dec. 20, 1849, to Jan. 8. 1851. John McDougal....Jan. 9, 1851, to Jan. 8, 1852. John Bigler... Jan. 8, 1852, to Jan. 9, 1856. J. Neely Johnson...Jan. 9, 1856, to Jan. 8, 1858. Jno. B. Weller.... .Jan. 8. 1858, to Jan. 9, 1860. Milton S. Latham..Jan. 9. 1860, to Jan. 11, 1860. Jno. G. Downey. .Jan. 14, 1860, to Jan. 10, 1862. Leland Stanford..Jan. 10, 1862, to Dec. 10, 1863. Fred. F. Low....Dec. 10, 1863, to Dec. 5, 1867. H. H. Haight. .Dec. 5, 1867, to Dec. 8. 1871. Newton Booth....Dec. 8, 1871, to Feb. 27, 1875. Romeraldo Pacheco

Feb. 27. 1875, to Dec. 9, 1875. Wm. Irwin.. ...Dec. 9. 1875, to Jan. 8, 1880. Geo. C. Perkins....Jan. 8. 1880, to Jan. 10, 1883. Geo. Stoneman. .Jan. 10, 1883, to Jan. 8, 1887. Washington Bartlett

..Jan. 8. 1887, to Sept. 12. 1887.

R. W. Waterman.

.Sept. 13, 1887, to Jan. 8, 1891. H. H. Markham...Jan. 8, 1891, to Jan. 11, 1895. Jas. H. Budd.....Jan. 11, 1895, to Jan. 4, 1899. Henry T. Gage...Jan. 4, 1899, to

DR. J. E. COHN, Napa, Calif.

CANADA, UNEXPLORED. -The director of the geological survey of Canada, in his last report, makes the amazing statement that practically nothing is known of one-third of the Dominion.

A careful estimate is made of the unexplored regions. Beginning at the extreme northwest of the Dominion, the first of these areas is between the eastern boundary of Alaska, the Porcupine River, and the Arctic coast, about 9,500 square miles in extent, or somewhat smaller than Belgium, and lying entirely within the Arctic Circle. The next is west of the Lewes and Yukon rivers and extends to the boundary of Alaska. Until last year, 32,000 square miles in this area was unexplored, but a part has since been traveled. A third area of 57,000 square miles-nearly twice as large as Scotland -lies between the Lewes, Pelly, and Stikine rivers. Between the Pelly and Mackenzie rivers is another large tract of 100,000 square miles, or about double the size of England. It includes nearly 600 miles of the main Rocky Mountain range. An unexplored area of 50,000 square miles is found between Great Bear Lake and the Arctic coast, being nearly all to the north of the Arctic Circle. Nearly as large as Portugal is another tract between Great Bear Lake, the Mackenzie River, and the western part of Great Slave Lake, in all 35,000 square miles. Lying between Stikine and Laird rivers to the north and the Skeena and Peace rivers to the south is an area of 81,000 square miles, which, except for a recent visit by a field party, is quite unexplored. Of the 35,000 square miles southeast of Athabasca Lake little is known, except that it has been crossed by a field party en route to Fort Churchill. East of the Coppermine River and west of Bathurst Inlet lies 7,500 miles of unexplored land, which may be compared to half the size of Switzerland. Eastward from this, lying between the Arctic coast and Black's River, is an area of 31,000 square miles, or about equal to Ireland. Much larger than Great Britain and Ireland, and embracing 178,000 square miles, is the region bounded by Black's River, Great Slave Lake, Athabasca Lake. Hatchet and Reindeer lakes, Churchill River, and the west coast of Hudson Bay. This country includes the barren grounds of the continent. On the south coast of Hudson Bay, between the Severn and Attawapishkat rivers, is an area 22,000 square miles in extent, or larger than Nova Scotia; and lying between Trout Lake. Lac Seul, and the Albany River is another 15,000 square miles of unexplored land.

South and east of James Bay and nearer to large centers of population than any other unexplored region is a tract of 35,000 square miles, which may be compared in size to Portugal.

The most easterly area is the greatest of all. It comprises almost the entire interior of the Labrador peninsula or Northwest Territory, in all 289,000 square miles, or more than twice as much as Great Britain and Ireland.

CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. -The first Chamber of Commerce founded by one country within the limits of another was in 1870, when Austria established such an institution at Constantinople. At first. this Chamber of Commerce served the interests of Austria-Hungary politically as well as commercially; to-day, however, it has no claims to a political organization. The home government has always taken an interest in its welfare, and a yearly subsidy is voted by the Reichsrath. The success of the chamber at Constantinople soon led to the establishment of others. In order to hold their own against the competition of England, France, and Germany in the Orient, the merchants of Trieste started a movement which led to the establishment of an Austrian Chamber of Commerce at Alexandria. This institution gave the merchants of Trieste not only a point of vantage in Egypt, but an observation station as well on the main highway to the far East. A government subsidy was soon obtained, and other Chambers of Commerce were established in Paris and London.

In 1872, Great Britain established a Chamber of Commerce in Paris. This is one of the bestorganized chambers in existence, and has served as a model for many others. The most important English firms located in Paris and throughout France are included in its membership. It has rendered important service in establishing satisfactory commercial treaties between France and England, and is in touch with the English importer in Paris and the French custom-house. The merchant in London receives from it all kinds of information in regard to the French market and the French consumer. It enjoys a very high standing in both countries, and the governments look upon it with respect and favor, which can be attributed only to its excellent arrangements. The organization has no official or political character whatever, having been founded entirely through private initiative.

With the exception of the Anglo-American Chamber of Commerce in Brussels, Great Britain has no other similar organization on the Continent. She has, however, more than thirty Chambers of Commerce or Boards of Trade in her own colonies in every part of the world, all of which belong to, or are members of, the United Chambers of Commerce of the Empire.

The following is a list of the locations of the most important commercial institutions fostered by English and colonial merchants:

These institutions are placed on an equality with the home chambers, with which they maintain regular intercourse. They give information concerning the credit standing of business houses, appoint, when requested, reliable agents, search out new markets, and collect samples of every description for manufacturers at home. The French consuls-general or consuls in the above-mentioned cities act as honorary presidents.

The Italian government has always looked favorably upon the founding of Chambers of Commerce in foreign countries. In 1894, the annual subsidy for this purpose amounted to $31,845. Of this sum, $3,128 went to the support of the chamber in Paris and $2,702 to the one in London. The following are the locations of some of the most important Italian Chambers of Commerce:

The Italian chambers do not possess the same character as those of France, for the reason that they are more directly under the supervision of the Minister of Commerce and Industry, who acts as a medium between them and the government in questions respecting subsidies.

According to German press reports, Spain, Greece, and Turkey are considering plans for establishing similar organizations in the most important commercial cities abroad. Belgium has a Chamber of Commerce in Paris, which issues monthly bulletins pertaining to all matters of commerce and industry.

Germany has a Chamber of Commerce in Brussels, and, according to recent reports, one will shortly be established at Bucharest, in Roumania. The German merchants of that locality will form the nucleus, receiving assistance from interested firms at home. This chamber will issue reports on the commercial and industrial outlook, not only in Roumania, but in the entire Levant. It will serve as a link to connect German business men in that part of the world with manufacturers and merchants at home. Last fall, the subject of establishing German Chambers of Commerce in foreign countries was discussed in the Reichstag, but without result. The question is being

441

continually agitated by different commercial bodies in this Empire, and press reports are altogether favorable to the plan in general. As far back as 1888, the Chamber of Commerce of Mannheim sent a memorial on the subject to the Imperial Minister of the Interior, setting forth that, in the opinion of that body, nothing could be more instrumental in furthering the interests of Germany's foreign commerce than the establishment of such institutions abroad. No less than forty-eight German Chambers of Commerce at once set their signatures to the Mannheim petition. It must be borne in mind that these bodies in Germany, unlike those in England and America, receive state aid, and in the movement to found similar institutions in foreign countries, it is taken for granted that they will be organized like those of France or Italy and subsidized by the government. This pecuniary point, at a time when the nation is confronted by new tariff plans for raising revenue, together with the disbursements created by the recent naval appropriations and the general industrial depression all over the Empire, will probably prevent any definite steps being taken in the matter for years to come. In the meantime, German merchants located in foreign business centers are likely to take the matter in hand and follow the lead of England and America, organizing Chambers of Commerce through private enterprise, which will have no connection whatever with the home government.

The German Chamber of Commerce in Brussels has accomplished much for the commercial interests of the Empire. In 1895, one year after its foundation, this chamber made its influence felt during the introduction and passage of the Belgian tariff law of that year. In addition to the general duties of such an or ganization, it takes an active interest in the complaints of German merchants located in Belgium, and advocates their interests before the proper authorities.

The United States has thus far three Chambers of Commerce abroad, namely, in Paris, Brussels, and Manila. The chamber in Paris (No. 3, rue Scribe) was founded in 1896 by American merchants resident in that city. In 1900, it had 201 paid-up memberships, of which 145 were American and 56 foreign. Its finances are well organized, and a fund has been established which, in time, will be devoted to the construction of a permanent home for the institution. The chamber has for its object "to examine questions concerning the commercial and industrial relations between the United States and France; to protect the mercantile interests subsisting between individuals and firms in the two aforesaid countries, and to take all measures which may facilitate and protect the transactions of business between them." The annual membership dues are 100 francs ($19.30). In its reading room are found all the leading American trade papers, while the library consists of over 700 well-chosen volumes relating to commerce and industry.

The Anglo-American Chamber in Brussels (29 Boulevard Anspach) was established in 1898 by English and American business men located in that city and in Antwerp, for the purpose of "promoting measures calculated to benefit, protect, and forward the mercantile

and trading interests of its members in Belgium; to represent and express their sentiments on commercial affairs; to collect statistics bearing upon the trade and manufactures of Great Britain and the United States of America; to establish a commercial library and a museum of samples in Brussels; to attain such other objects of general commercial advantage as the exertions of individuals may be less able to accomplish; to do all such other things as are incidental or conducive to the attainment of the above objects, or any of them." It is a flourishing institution with over 200 members.

The best argument in favor of founding American Chambers of Commerce in foreign countries is the success which is attending the efforts of those already in existence. The importance of this subject in general is such that I would recommend it to the careful consideration of our Chambers of Commerce, manufacturers, and merchants who are interested in the export of American products to every part of the world. These useful institutions established in emporiums of trade such as London, Moscow, Yokohama, Shanghai, Sydney, Cape Town, Buenos Ayres, and some good city in the German Empire, would be strategic points of immense advantage in furthering the expansion of American commerce.

ERNEST L. HARRIS,

In Consular Reports.

CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT IN ENGLAND. -There lies before me, a large book of about twelve by ten inches, with over three hundred pages, of which two hundred and ninety-one contain the report of the Thirty-second Annual Co-operative Congress, held June, 1900. This is printed by the Co-operative Printing Society, whose head offices are in Manchester, with branches in Newcastle and London. It is printed on co-operative paper, bound with cooperative twine and so on. At the back are 18 pages of advertisements of co-operative productions, embracing such things as clothing and cloths, shirts, galvanized goods, shoes, washing machines, bedsteads, house furnishing goods, flannels, cottons, cutlery, dress goods, building and insurance societies, etc. At the back, are two closely printed pages of lists of books and pamphlets. There are 94 pamphlets for free distribution, where societies and members cannot afford to pay for them and 44 books at prices ranging for 40 cents to $3. Many of these are published in the Welsh language. Also there is a list of lantern slides for lectures and songs for their meetings. The whole is the biggest monument of voluntary self-help actually accomplished by the British workingmen for themselves-not by the upper classes or the employers or the college professors, but by themselves, for themselves...

Prof. Pearson says: "The path of progress is strewn with the wrecks of nations: traces are everywhere to be seen of the hetacombs of inferior races, and of victims who found not the narrow way to the greater perfection. Yet these dead peoples are in very truth the stepping-stones on which mankind has arisen to the higher intellectual and deeper emotional life of to-day.

"The safety of a nation depends upon the

intensity with which the social instinct has been developed, and the stability of a race depends entirely on the extent to which the social feelings have got a real hold on it.

"What we need is organized brain power controlling our nervous system right away to the smallest outlying point. We need to bring brains into our industry from top to bottom. 'We need men who will adapt themselves easily to changing circumstances. Education should be directed to enlarging the brain capacity rather than merely training the mind and hand."

The Pioneer Society was started at Rochdale in 1844, the first productive societies about 1850, the wholesale societies in 1864, and the

Congresses in 1868. At the Congress of 1900, there were nearly 1,000 delegates representing 431 societies, with nearly 2,000,000 members, and as the general rule is that only one of a family is a member, it is safe to say that these societies reach and influence nearly 10,000,000 people. There were in the United Kingdom in 1901, 41,455,219 people. A group of purely voluntary societies which have an actual enrollment of between 4 and 5 per cent. and reach between 20 and 25 per cent. of all the people of a great nation, is a tremendous affair. And it has been done by the working people.

Two hundred and fourteen societies did not report in time to be printed. Here is an analysis of the remainder:

These figures show an increase of 1899 over 1890 of between 5 and 10 per cent. Multiplying the pounds by $5, which is not quite accurate, but convenient, and making into round figures, we have two wholesale societies with a capital of over $5,000,000, a business of nearly $100,000,000 and profits of $2,750,000. In the retail societies, there are 1,473 societies, with an average membership of about 1,100; they have a capital of $95,000,000, or an average of $64,000; they did a business of $225,000,000, which aver

ages a million and a half each, and they made profits of nearly $35,000,000 or an average of $25,000 each. The productive societies show an increase in numbers, capital and profits, but a decrease in sales, but they made and sold over $13,000,000 worth. If we foot the business done by them all up, it amounts to between $250,000,000 and $275,000,000. And this is all done by the British working man for himself.

Here are tabulated statements of the two wholesale societies:

Lard, etc.:—

Batley Clothing:

Leeds

1899

1898

1899

1,063*

1,079*

567t

6012

£

775,535

£ 821,224

£

£

223,932

242,009

1,291,712 1,364,345

960,997

1,035,476

12,574,748 14,212,375

4,692,330

5,014,189

In agriculture, the wholesale or distributive societies farmed 6,203 acres, had a capital invested of $500,000, paid rent of $44,000, made a profit of $16,000 and a loss of $7,000. Also three farming societies did some small business and in Ireland there are a large number of co-operative farming and dairying societies of which the report says:

"The agricultural movement in Ireland continues to make great progress, and co-operation in some form or other is taking hold of this industry in a manner which has not yet been possible either in England, Scotland, or Wales."

On co-operative credit banks, the report says: "As instructed by last Congress, we have made some attempt to obtain information relating to the Co-operative Credit Ranks which have been established in Great Britain and Ireland.

"The results are as follows:

credit banks which are found on the Continent. In Germany, there are 10,000 such banks, performing most useful co-operative service to the industrial and agricultural workers of that country, and we cannot but think that similar institutions would prove equally serviceable to a large number of the workers of this country, such as sailors, fishermen, agriculturists, and sweated home-workers in towns, to whom cooperative credit would be of immense advantage."

In co-operative insurance the following figures show the progress made in the Ordinary Life, Fidelity and Fire branches of the Insurance Society during the year:

128

463

48 2,085 3.821

42

1

Total......

Scotland.

(a) Not given.

The results here shown are small indeed as compared with the vast organizations of

1 373

2,200 286

An insurance company writing $450,000 of life risks, $1,100,000 of fidelity risks and $65,000,000 of fire risks is no small thing. Of course they publish papers. The Co-operative News has a weekly circulation of over 50,000, the Wheat-Sheaf a monthly circulation of