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The

International Year Book

1901

ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN, the American artist, was commissioned in 1901 to paint the coronation scene at the crowning of King Edward VII. in 1902, and also finished his important series "The Quest of the Holy Grail," for the Boston Public Library, during the year. He was born in Philadelphia, April 1, 1852, and received his art education at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. In 1871 he was engaged by Harper and Brothers as a staff artist, and in 1878 was sent by them to England, where he has lived almost continuously since. The first of his pictures to be exhibited at the Royal Academy was “A May Day Morning” (1890). Others of his notable works are "Fiametta's Song" (1894); the first part of the series of decorative panels for the Boston Library (1895); "Richard III. and the Lady Anne" (1896); "Hamlet" (1897); and "King Lear's Daughters" (1898). Besides these he has illustrated editions of Herrick's Poems, She Stoops to Conquer, the Comedies of Shakespeare, and other works. Mr. Abbey's work is characterized by its decorative quality, as well as by a graceful and romantic conception, especially in the illustration of Shakespeare and Goldsmith.

ABBOTT, EVELYN, English scholar and teacher, died at Malvern, England, September 7, 1901. He was born in England in 1843, and was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1866. He was elected a fellow of Balliol College in 1874, and subsequently became tutor and librarian, filling the office of classical moderator in 1883, and again in 1893-94. Mr. Abbott was extremely popular as a tutor and lecturer, and he gained a large influence over his students by his sympathy and interest in their work. He wrote much, principally on Greek philology and history. Among his works are, Elements of Greek Accidence (1874); Index to Plato (1875); Hellenica: Essays on Greek Poetry, Philosophy, History and Religion (1880); A History of Greece (1888); and a translation of Max Duncker's History of Antiquity (1887-91).

ABDURRAHMAN, or ABDUL-RAHMAN, Ameer of Afghanistan, died at Kabul, October 3, 1901. Eldest son of Afzul Khan and nephew of the late Ameer Shere Ali, he was born about 1830, and received a thorough economic and political training. In the civil war of 1864 he played a conspicuous part in his father's struggle to wrest the control of the country from Shere Ali, being in fact the organizer and director of these campaigns. Afzul Khan was placed on the throne in 1867, but proved incompetent and died from the effects of dissipation a year later, whereupon Shere Ali regained control of the government and Abdurrahman fled to Russia where he lived in seclusion. In 1879 Shere Ali died and was succeeded by his son Yakoub Khan, who was driven out by the British after a reign of less than a year, in punishment for the assassination of British envoys to his court. Seizing the opportunity thus afforded, Abdurrahman returned from retirement, and because of assistance rendered to the British and the eagerness of the latter to concern themselves only with affairs in India at that time, was recognized as Ameer by Great Britain and shortly afterward gained the submission of his subjects. Throughout his reign Abdurrahman governed with unusual vigor and wisdom, nominally under the control of the British government, but actually retaining considerable independence. He was a vigorous political organizer, and enforced with a strong hand the laws for punishing illicit traders and gamblers. He reorganized the army, crushed out revolts against his power with unsparing severity, and by his efforts raised the social, industrial, and

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agricultural welfare of the country to the greatest excellence it has ever known. He was succeeded by his son, Habibullah (q.v.).

ABRASIVES. The production of natural abrasives in the United States in 1899 and 1900 was as follows:

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Of the artificial abrasives, the value of the crushed steel produced for this purpose in 1900 was $47,250. The quantity of carborundum produced in 1900 was 2,401,000 pounds, the value of which is not given. The imports of grindstones in 1900 were valued at $92,581, while those of oilstones and whetstones amounted to $39,306, and of buhrstones to $28,904. Attempts are being made to find good stones for grinding wood pulp in the United States, and for this purpose the Peninsula and Tippecanoe grits of Ohio sandstone are being used. Pulp stones are broader than grindstones, and those now in use have been imported from Newcastle-on-Tyne, England. The imports of these stones in 1900 amounted to 553 tons, an amount which was probably exceeded in 1901. Among the recent publications dealing with abrasives is one by J. H. Pratt on the abrasive materials of the United States, Mining and Metallurgy, xxiv, p. 347, 1901.

ABYSSINIA, an independent country of eastern Africa, separated from the sea by Eritrea and French, British and Italian Somaliland. The capital is Adis Ababa. Area and Population.-Abyssinia proper consists of four provinces, Tigré, Shoa, Amhara, and Godjam, the combined area of which is estimated at 100,000 square miles; dependent territories aggregate some 50,000 square miles. Both of these estimates are perhaps too small. It was reported in the fall of 1901 that the boundaries between Abyssinia and the Egyptian Soudan had been fixed; the only Abyssinian frontiers remaining undetermined were in the region of Lake Rudolf and the Juba valley; and in November it was stated that the British government had despatched engineers to survey a proposed boundary in these districts. The population is estimated at about 3,500,000. There are few towns of more than 5,000 inhabitants; Harar, however, has a population of about 35.000. The state religion is Christianity. Education, which is in the hands of the clergy, is not in an advanced condition. Government, etc.-In 1889 the King of Shoa became the ruler of all Abyssinia under the title of Emperor Menelek II. He is practically an absolute monarch, but maintains a sort of feudal political system with the rases, or princes, under whom are governors of districts and chiefs of villages. The most important rases constitute a state council. Besides territorial troops and irregulars there is an army of 150,000 men made up of contingents from the several provinces.

Industries, Commerce, etc.-To a small extent the inhabitants engage in agriculture, but the raising of cattle and sheep is the principal industry. The imports consist chiefly of cotton and woollen goods, cutlery, glassware, matches, provisions, and arms. In the fiscal year 1900 the imports and exports at Harar, the commercial centre of the country, were estimated at 3,822,650 dollars and 2,691,000 dollars respectively. (The Abyssinian silver dollar is worth about fifty cents in United States money.) Customs duties are imposed on both imports and exports.

A railway from Jiboutil, on the coast in French Somaliland, to Harar, 186 miles distant, is under construction; the line has entered Abyssinian territory, and on December 17, 1901, was completed to the 125th mile. In 1901 a telegraph line was projected between Massowah, on the coast of Eritrea, and Adis Ababa, and a tramway between the latter town and Adis Halem.

Foreign Influence.-For some time it has been felt that Franco-Russian influence is in the ascendancy in Abyssinia. Several years ago King Menelek appointed the Russian adventurer, Count Leontieff, and a French prince governors of his equatorial province. This appointment, according to a report published in April, 1901, had been reaffirmed, as far as M. Leontieff was concerned, who after an absence from Abyssinia was returning thither to take command of the forces to be raised in the equatorial province. Gold was recently discovered in that province, and in June, 1901, an associate of Leontieff's, Baron de Chedeuvre, sailed from France with a number of engineers to explore the fields. On the other hand British influence

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seemed to be on the increase in 1901. It was reported that several English companies had arranged to provide funds for a railway to connect Adis Ababa with the coast. For the military alliance, which is more significant, between British and Abyssinian troops, and the operations in the field, see SOMALILAND.

ACADEMIE FRANCAISE, founded in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu and reorganized in 1816, is the first and most eminent of the academies forming the Institute of France (q.v.). It is composed of forty members (known as the "forty immortals") who are elected for life, after personal application and the submission of their names to the head of the state. The members receive an annual stipend of 1,500 francs, the permanent secretary 6,000 francs, and 6 members on the dictionary committee receive each annually besides 1,000 francs for their work. The Académie has also the disposal of a prize of 12,000 francs annually, alternately for poetry and eloquence, besides a number of smaller prizes. The chief office is that of the permanent secretary; the present incumbent is Marie Louis Antoine Gaston Boissier, who was elected to the Académie in 1876 and has a life tenure of his position. The Académie meets twice a week at the Palace Mazarin, 23 Quai Conti, Paris. Two members were elected in 1901, viz.: Charles Jean Melchior, Marquis de Vogüé, to succeed the Duc de Broglie, and M. Edmond Rostand to succeed M. Bornier. A chair in the Académie is the ambition of the literary men of Paris.

ACADEMY OF MEDICINE, AMERICAN, founded partly with the object of encouraging intending physicians to pursue a regular course of study leading to a bachelor degree before entering on the study of medicine and partly for the investigation of various problems of medical sociology. Membership, honorary and active, 834. President, Victor C. Vaughan, University of Michigan; secretary and treasurer, Charles McIntire, M.D., Easton, Pa.

ACADEMY OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE, AMERICAN. See POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE, AMERICAN ACADEMY OF.

ACETOSPYRIN is a new salicylic compound which, unlike other salicylates, is insoluble in the gastric juice, but readily soluble in the intestinal secretions. It is a combination of aspirin (aceto-salicylic acid) with antipyrin, and occurs as a white, crystaline powder, with a slight acetic odor, and is almost insoluble in cold water. It has been used by Winterberg in the General Hospital in Vienna with great success in cases of rheumatism.

ACTINOTHERAPY. See PHOTOTHERAPY.

ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER, American educator and historian, died at Amherst, Mass., July 30, 1901. He was born at Shutesbury, Mass., April 16, 1850, graduated at Amherst College in 1872, and received the degree of Ph.D. at Heidelberg in 1876. Upon his return from Germany he became a fellow (1876) at the newly established Johns Hopkins University, and in a few years assumed charge of the departments of history and political science, a position he held until failing health compelled his resignation a few months before his death. From 1884, the year of its organization, Professor Adams was secretary of the American Historical Association, in the foundation of which he took a leading part. Early in his university career he founded the Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science, and edited, with fine judgment, some forty volumes in the series. From 1887 he edited the series of Contributions to American Educational History, published by the United States Bureau of Education, and was also a contributor to it. The Life and Writings of Jared Sparks (1893) was his only published book, but among his many important monographs may be mentioned The Germanic Origin of the New England Towns; and Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia.

ADEN, a territory in southwestern Arabia about 100 miles east of Bab-el-Mandeb. The total area, including the small island of Perim, is 80 square miles; the population (1891), 41,910. Aden is a dependency of the Bombay Presidency and is administered by a British political resident, who is commander of the troops; it is a point of British protection over the neighboring Arab tribes which are independent of Turkish rule. Aden is an invaluable British possession, since it affords an important coaling station and practically commands the entrance to the Red Sea, thus protecting the trade with India. The commerce is almost entirely in transit. Imports and exports in the fiscal year 1899 amounted to 41,694,011 rupees and 33,289,895 rupees respectively; in 1900, 43,264,556 rupees and 35,244.515 rupees respectively. On July 14, 1901, an expedition numbering about 500 British and Indian troops under Colonel Harrison left the port of Aden for Al Dareja, about seventy miles inland, to destroy a fort built by Turks under Mahomed Nussar in the territory of the Haushadi, who are under British protection. Although the Porte disowned the act of the Turks, the Haushadi were unable to obtain possession of the fort, and

Aden.

Advancement of Science.

hence the Indian government interfered. After overcoming some opposition the British force destroyed the fort in the latter part of the month. It was announced in November, 1901, that Great Britain had accepted in principle the proposal of the Porte for the appointment of a mixed Anglo-Turkish commission to mark the boundary between the hinterland of Aden and the vilayet of Yemen.

ADRENALIN is the name given to the active principle of the suprarenal gland by Takamine, of New York, who isolated the new drug in 1900. It is claimed to be the most powerful astringent and hemostatic known. One drop of a solution of Adrenalin in water, of the strength of 1 to 10,000, will blanch the normal conjunctiva in from one-half to one minute. Takamine states that the intravenous injection of 0.000016 gramme of Adrenalin chloride in a dog weighing 30 pounds raised the blood pressure to nearly nine millimeters of mercury. It is thus 625 times stronger than suprarenal extract. It is not irritating, poisonous, cumulative, or injurious. It has a wide range of applicability in treatment of the eye and of the nose, and has already proved useful administered internally in asthma, laryngitis, Addison's disease, exophthalmic goitre, and in certain heart diseases. Reichert, of Philadelphia, has experimented successfully with Adrenalin in opium and morphine poisoning, in collapse during anæsthesia, and in allied conditions where circulatory failure exists. He finds that it has prompt and positive action upon the respiratory movement of the heart, the arterial pressure, general metabolism, and the body temperature. Adrenalin is described as a light, white crystalline substance, with a slightly bitter taste and a benumbing influence on the tongue; stable when dry; slightly soluble in cold water, though readily soluble in hot, and with a faint alkaline reaction. See SUPRARENAL EXTRACT.

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ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE, was organized in 1848 and has a membership of over 3,000, including some of the best known scientific men in the country. About fifteen leading scientific associations are affiliated with the association, which serves as a centre for the meetings of these societies. The association meets in sections which cover the field of science. These are: (a) Mathematics and Astronomy; (b) Physics; (c) Chemistry; (d) Mechanical Science and Engineering; (e) Geology and Geography; (f) Zoology; (g) Botany; (h) Anthropology; (i) Social and Economic Science; (k) Physiology and Experimental Medicine. The annual meetings of the association are held each time in a different city, the last six meetings having been held at Buffalo, Detroit, Boston, Columbus, New York, and Denver. The next meeting will be held June 28-July 3, 1902, at Pittsburg, Pa., at which Professor Asaph Hall, Cambridge, Mass., will preside. At the New York meeting, by unanimous vote of the council, it was decided to send Science, a scientific journal of 2,000 pages, free to members beginning January, 1901. The Association for the Advancement of Science held its fiftieth annual meeting at Denver, Colo., during the week commencing August 24, 1901, under the presidency of Professor Charles S. Minot, of Harvard University. This was the first meeting held west of the Mississippi River, and was well attended. There were ten sections represented and two hundred and twenty papers read at the meeting. The address of the retiring president, Professor R. S. Woodward, of Colorado University, was mainly devoted to the consideration of The Progress of Science. Professor C. R. Van Hise read a paper on The Geology of Ore Deposits and Mr. Gifford Pinchot, chief of the Bureau of Forestry, on Irrigation and Forestration. In the section of Chemistry, Professor J. H. Long, of Northwestern University, delivered an address on the development of the teaching of chemistry in the United States. In the section of Mechanical Science and Engineering, John H. Brashear, acting chancellor of Western University, of Pennsylvania, described plans drawn for the Carnegie Technical College in Pittsburg, which will call for an endowment of from $10,000,000 to $20,000,000. In the section of Zoology, Professor Charles B. Davenport, of the University of Chicago, discussed the quantitative study of variation, and in the section of Anthropology, Amos W. Butler, of the Indiana State board of charities, described the methods applied under his direction to the care of the feeble-minded, with some scientific deductions on heredity. In the section of Social and Economical Science, Professor C. M. Woodward, of Washington University, St. Louis, reai a paper on A Change of Front in Education. A new section of the Association devoted to physiology and experimental medicine was organized, and will hold its first meeting for the reading of papers in 1902. President, Professor Charles S. Minot, Harvard University; permanent secretary, L. O. Howard, Washington, D. C. See ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETIES.

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE. See BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE and ZOOLOGICAL SO

CIETIES.

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ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, FRENCH AND SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE. See ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETIES.

ADVENTISTS, popularly known also as Millerites, a name derived from that of their founder, have, according to late statistics, 88,705 communicants, 1,505 ministers, and 2,286 churches included in the following six branches: Evangelical, Advent Christians, Seventh Day Adventists, Church of God, Life and Advent Union, and Church of God in Jesus Christ. In numerical strength the Advent Christians, with over 25,000 members, rank next to the Seventh Day Adventists.

Seventh Day Adventists, organized in 1844, have a membership of 75,767 (nearly 60,000 in the United States), with 510 ministers, and 1,892 churches. This body, whose headquarters are at Battle Creek, Mich., maintains 5 colleges, 12 academies and industrial schools, and 10 publishing houses. There are 45 or more conferences throughout the world, and the missionary work, carried on in some 40 fields, covers an extensive territory. A system of parochial schools has been projected in the interests of which an educational conference and summer school was convened at Lake Gognac, near Battle Creek. During the first six months of 1902, four important union conferences will be held in various parts of the United States, and later the General European Conference will meet in London, England.

AERIAL NAVIGATION. Renewed attention was called to the problem of aerial navigation during 1901 by the experiments made with a dirigible balloon by M. Santos-Dumont, a young Brazilian, resident in Paris. Indeed it was publicly proclaimed by the French newspapers, because of these experiments, that a final solution of this fascinating problem had been devised. This claim certainly cannot be allowed, and it is not at all flain to experts in aeronautics from the facts so far made public that M. Santos-Dumont has established a right even to the claim of having advanced the dirigible balloon to greater perfection as a device for navigating the air than it already possessed. A brief summary of previous experiments with dirigible balloons will present some exact facts with which to compare the results obtained by this latest experimenter. The evolution of the dirigible balloon began in 1852, when Gifford ascended in one 144 feet long, equipped with a 3 horse-power steam engine weighing 462 pounds, and attained an independent speed of 6.71 miles an hour. In 1872 Dupuy de Lôme ascended in a balloon 118 feet long and attained a speed of 6.26 miles an hour, with man power. In 1884 Tissandier attained a speed of 7.82 miles an hour in a balloon 92 feet long equipped with an electric motor of 11⁄2 horse-power, weighing 616 pounds. A year later, in 1885, Renard and Krebs, using the balloon La France, 165 feet long, provided with a 6 horse-power electric motor, is said to have attained for an instant a speed of 17 miles an hour. The last Schwartz, with a balloon 157 feet long equipped with a 16 horse-power benzine motor is said to have attained for an instant a speed of 17 miles an hour. The last of the experiments to be noted before coming to those of M. Santos-Dumont is that of Count Zeppelin, made in 1900, with a balloon 480 feet long and 39 feet in diameter, provided with two benzine motors of 32 horse-power, and weighing 1,430 pounds. With this balloon, its designer attained a maximum speed of 18 miles an hour. Both Renard and Krebs and Count Zeppelin were able with their machines not only to maintain the independent speeds in direct flight which have been stated, but also to beat against the wind and to turn at will and describe loops and circles in the air. Turning now to the experiments of M. Santos-Dumont, it may be stated at the outset that the work which culminated in the notable flight of 61⁄2 miles around the Eiffel Tower in 1901 was begun in 1898. The first balloon, which was built in 1898, was in the form of a cylinder terminated at each end by a cone; it was 82 feet long, nearly 6 feet in diameter, and could lift 450 pounds, including its own weight of 66 pounds, or about 380 pounds net load Beneath the balloon was suspended a light basket containing the propelling machinery and accommodations for the aeronaut. The motor was of 12 horse-power, operated by gasoline To trim the balloon fore and aft so as to ascend and descend a bag of ballast was attached to a rope hung from the fore part or the after part, tilting the balloon up or down as desired. The first serious attempt at flight with this machine came near being fatal to the aeronaut. To compensate for the condensation and dilatation of the gas in the balloon by changes of temperature, the inventor had placed a small compensating air balloon inside the gas balloon, which by means of an air pump could be inflated and deflated at will. In the first flight the air pump failed to work, and the gas balloon became flabby through condensation and began to double on itself and finally fell. Through sheer good luck no damage resulted to the aeronaut. Previous to the accident the operator had thorough control of his machine and was able to manœuvre it in circles and loops at will. The second balloon built by M. SantosDumont was similar in construction to the first, but was somewhat larger. No ascension was made with this balloon, as the inventor had come to the conclusion that a change in model was desirable. Balloon No. 3 was accordingly constructed in 1899,

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