most modern type, touched with cynicism, but good-naturedly tolerant of that which he felt bound to criticise, and witty withal. His philosophical writings include Filosofia de las leyes (1846), El Personalismo (1850), Polemicas con la democracia (1862), Lo Absoluto (1865), and El Idealismo (1883).

CANADA, DOMINION OF, the largest colonial possession of Great Britain, occupying the northern part of the North American continent. The capital is Ottawa. Area and Population.—The total area, exclusive of the territory of Franklin, whose area is unknown, is placed at 3,653,946 square miles, including 605,253 square miles of water surface. The population, census of 1891 and of 1901, is stated as follows:

The population of the largest cities in Canada, according to the census of 1901, together with the increase since 1891, is shown in the following table:

Thus the population of the Dominion shows an increase of 537,812, or nearly 11.13 per cent. for the decade of 1891-1901, as compared with over 11 per cent. for the decade of 1881-91, and 17 per cent. for the decade of 1871-81. These figures are certainly disappointing when the natural advantages of the country are considered, and they lose still more when compared with the increase of the population of the United States during the decade of 1890-1900. According to a statement published recently by the British Board of Trade, the emigration from Canada to the United States within the last year was estimated at 65,000 to 75,000, while the emigration from the United States to Canada amounted only to about 13,000. New York City alone, according to preliminary census figures, contains nearly 22,000 Canadians, and it is estimated that Chicago has about half as many Canadian residents. An examination of the first table given above will show that the province of Quebec has the largest absolute increase, the Northwest Territorities, the largest relative increase (118 per cent.), and Prince Edward Island the only decrease. From the two tables it may be seen that the cities have increased at a faster rate than the entire Dominion-a fact that is hardly to be considered as a favorable symptom in an undeveloped country like Canada.

Government. By a parliamentary act of 1867, authorizing and establishing the Canadian federation, Canada was virtually created an independent republic, though with a titular executive representing the English crown. This executive, the governor-general, rules by and with the consent of the privy council, but the privy council is composed of certain members of the dominant party in the Canadian Parliament, and is headed by the premier, the leader of his party and the real executive of Canada. The legislative power is vested in a federal parliament, consisting of a Senate and a House of Commons. The House of Commons consists of 213 members elected for a term of five years, and the Senate of 81 members, nominated for life by the governor-general upon the recommendation of the council. Representation in both houses is based approximately upon population and changes in both the number and distribution may be made in accordance with the findings of the census. Local self-government is provided for by provincial legislatures and by a territorial legislature, but the provincial and territorial executives are nominated by the governor-general with the advice of the privy council.

The ministry of the Liberal party, which came into power at the general elections of 1896, is at present constituted as follows: Premier and president of the council, Sir Wilfrid Laurier; secretary of state, R. W. Scott; minister of trade and commerce, Sir R. J. Cartwright; minister of justice and attorney-general, David Mills; minister of marine and fisheries, Sir L. H. Davies; minister of railways and canals, A. G. Blair; minister of militia and defense, F. W. Borden; minister of finance, W. S. Fielding; postmaster-general, W. Mulock; minister of agriculture, S. A. Fisher; minister of public works, J. I. Tarte; minister of interior, Clifford Sifton; minister of customs, William Paterson; minister of inland revenue, M. C. Bernier. Charles Fitzpatrick, solicitor-general, has no seat in the cabinet, while R. R. Dobell and J. Sutherland have cabinet positions but are without portfolios.

Finance. The general economic prosperity of the country in 1900 is manifested both in its commerce and in its public finance. The revenue and expenditure for the fiscal year 1900 amounted to $51,039,994 and $42,975,280 respectively, leaving a surplus of $8,054,714, the largest in the history of the Dominion. The increase in the revenue of $4,298,744 over the preceding year was due largely to the increased custom receipts, which amounted in 1900 to $28,889,110, as against $25,734,229 in 1899. The other sources of revenue were postal receipts and internal and miscellaneous revenues. The chief items of expenditure were charges on the public debt, $13,392,479; railways and canals, $5,433,127; post-office, $4,807,484; subsidies to provinces, $4,250,608; and public works, $2,472,748. The gross debt of the Dominion at the end of the fiscal year 1900 amounted to $346,206,980, as against $345,160,903 at the end of the preceding year. The assets amounted to $80,713,173, of which $60,572,589 were interest-bearing. The average rate of actual interest paid on the debt in 1900 was 3.09 per cent.

Agriculture.-According to official statistics the total area of land set out for settlement in the Dominion at the end of 1900 was nearly 82,000,000 acres. During 1900 there were made 7,848 homestead entries, representing 24,565 persons. According to nationality, the entries were made by 3,331 Canadians, 1,851 by immigrants from the United States (including 170 returned Canadians), 955 by immigrants from Great Britain, 50 French, 259 Germans, 1,043 Austro-Hungarians, 80 Russians, 101 Swedes and Norwegians, 71 Icelanders and 107 by immigrants from other countries. The statistics of crops are given under the separate provinces, and the agricultural importance of the Dominion, as a whole, may be judged from its exports of domestic agricultural and animal products. These exports for the fiscal year 1900 show a very considerable increase as compared with the exports for the preceding fiscal year, and were made up as follows: Wheat, 16,844,650 bushels (10,305,470 in 1899); wheat flour, 768,162 barrels; oats, 6,929,214 bushels; peas, 3,059,927 bushels; and barley, 2,156,282 bushels. The exports of live stock from the Dominion in 1900 comprised 10,053 lorses, 205,524 cattle, and 459,944 sheep. The chief animal products exported during the same year, with comparisons for the previous year, were: Bacon, 132,175,688 pounds (111,868,938 pounds in 1899); hams, 2,856,186 pounds (4,783,989); beef, 2,847,180 pounds (363,810); canned meats, 2,879.897 pounds (1,110,165); butter, 25,259,737 pounds (20,139,195 pounds in 1899 and 11,253.787 pounds in 1898); eggs, 10,187,906 dozen (9,652,512); and cheese, 185,984,430 pounds (189,827,839). The total value of the exports of domestic agricultural and animal products for the fiscal year 1900 amounted to $81,858,450, as compared with $68,140,758 in 1899. Of the total amount, Great Britain took 85.6 per cent., and the United States, 8.62 per cent.

Mineral Production.-Next to agriculture, mining is the chief industry of the Dominion, whose importance as a mineral producing country has been increasing very rapidly. The total value of the mineral output, according to figures prepared by the Geological Survey, was $63,775,000 for the calendar year of 1900, showing an increase of over $14,000,000 or over 28 per cent., as compared with 1899. The output of the leading metals was as follows: Gold, $27,916,752 ($21,261,584 in 1899); copper, 18,919,820 pounds, valued at $3,063,119 (15,078,475 pounds, valued at $2,655,319 in 1899); nickel, 7,080,227 pounds, valued at $3,227,707 (5.744,000 pounds, valued at $2,067,840 in 1899); silver, 4.446,505 ounces, valued at $2,730,598; lead, 63,169,821 pounds, valued at $2,760,521 (21,862,436 pounds, valued at $977,250 in 1899). The chief non-metallic minerals were coal, 5,332,197 short tons, valued at $12,668,475; coke, 157,134 tons; and petroleum 710,498 barrels, valued at $1,151,007. Out of a total consumption of 167,169 short tons of pig iron in 1900, about 61 per cent. was produced in the Dominion (including over 40 per cent. made from foreign ore). The exports of domestic mineral products in 1000 amounted to $26,116,077 ($14,143,149 in 1899). The United States took $24,355.843, against $12,913,311 in 1899. In 1901 there were in Canada 7 iron works in operation, with an annual capacity of 440,000 tons. There was also being constructed by the Lake Superior Power Company an extensive plant for the manufacturing of pig iron, steel, and steel rails at Sault Ste. Marie, Ont., which will be the first establishment for the manufacturing of steel rails in the Dominion.

Fisheries-The yield of the Dominion fisheries for the calendar year 1899 (the latest for which official statistics are available) shows an increase over the preceding year, although it still falls short of the yield of 1897. The total value for 1899 was $21,891,706, as compared with $19,667,126 for 1898 and $22,783,546 for 1897. The chief kinds of fish caught during 1899 were: Cod, $3,738,223; lobsters, $2,870,000; salmon, over $4,000,000; and herring, over $2,000,000. Nearly 80,000 men were employed in the fishery industry, and the value of the plants (excluding lobster canneries) was over $10,000,000. The bounties paid to fishermen by the government, under the act of 1882, amounted in 1899 to $160,000, making the total amount paid, since the passing of the act, $2,841,369. The sealing industry for 1900 shows only a slight improvement over the preceding year, the catch for the two years being 35,523 and 35,346 respectively. The exports of the products of the Canadian fisheries for 1900 was the largest in the history of the Dominion, amounting to $11,169,083 against $9,909,662 in the preceding year.

Commerce.-The official figures for the trade of the Dominion for the fiscal year 1900 are of the most encouraging nature. The aggregate value of the imports and exports for that year was the largest in the history of the country, exceeding the total commerce of the preceding year by over $60,000,000 ($381,517,236 against $321,661,213). The imports amounted to $189,622,513 ($162,764,308 in 1899), of which $180,804,316 represented imports for home consumption. Of the latter, the United States contributed $109,844,378 ($93,844,378 in 1899); Great Britain, $44,789,730 ($37.060,123 in 1899); and other countries, $26,170,208 ($23,984,304 in 1899). During the last decade of the 19th century the proportion of imports from the United States, in the total imports for home consumption, to the Dominion increased from 46.37 to 60.75 per cent., while the imports from Great Britain during the same period decreased from 38.48 to 24.77 per cent., notwithstanding the advantages of the preferential tariff, which has been in force since 1898. The imports for 1900, with comparative figures for the preceding year, were made up as follows: Articles of food and animals, $30,008,980 ($29,011,195); crude products used in domestic industries, $33,351,292 ($29,241,888); articles wholly or partially manufactured used in domestic manufactures and mechanical arts, $35,679,437 ($26,116,487); manufactured articles ready for consumption, $60,838,204 ($53,132,914); articles of voluntary use, luxuries, etc., $12,628,965 ($11,843,975). The total value of the imports under preferential tariff was $24,954,262 in 1898, $26,597,442 in 1899, and $27,095,791 in 1900. The value of the domestic exports in 1900 was $170,642,369 ($138,462,037 in 1899), of which $96,562,875 went to Great Britain, $59,666,556 to the United States and $14,412,938 to other countries. Thus the exports to Great Britain decreased for the year from 61.47 to 56.59 per cent. of the total, while those to the United States increased from 29.30 to 34.97 per cent. Taking, however, the entire last decade of the 19th century, the exports to Great Britain show an increase from 48.67 to 56.59 per cent., while those to the United States show a decrease from 42.48 to 34.97 per cent. The domestic exports for 1900 were made up as follows: Mineral products, $24,575,155 ($13,365,442 in 1899); fishery products, $11,169,083 ($9.909,662); forest products, $4,495,789 ($5,486,724 in 1899); animals and animal products, $56,148,809 ($46,743,130); agricultural products, $27,516.609 ($22,952,915 in 1899); and manufactures, $39,397,277 ($34,244,220). Preliminary figures for the fiscal year 1901 give the aggregate value of the trade of the Dominion as $394,000,000. The number of failures for 1901 was 1,341 (1,355 in 1899), with liabilities amounting to $10,811,671, and assets of $7,686,823. See the foregoing paragraphs on Agriculture, Mineral Production, and Fisheries.

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Currency and Banking.-The average monthly note circulation in the Dominion during 1900 was $26,550,465, as against $25,041,650 in 1899 and $23,229,779 in 1898. The aggregate paid-up capital of the Dominion banks at the end of the calendar year 1900 amounted to $65,154,594 ($63,726,399 in 1899), and the notes in circulation, $46,574,780 ($41,513,139 in 1899). The clearings at the clearing-houses of Montreal, Halifax, Toronto, Hamilton, Winnipeg, St. John, Victoria, and Vancouver amounted to $1,589,560,411 ($1,625,680,194 in 1899), of which over 46 per cent. transacted at the clearing house of Montreal, and over 32 per cent. at that of Toronto. Deposits in the government savings banks, which are under the supervision of the Department of Finance, are being gradually transferred to the post office savings banks. The number of the latter at the end of the fiscal year 1900 was 847 (838 in 1899), with 150.987 depositors and deposits amounting to $37,507,456, or $248.41 per depositor. The 24 government savings banks had at the same date 45,773 depositors and deposits amounting to $15,642,267, or $341.74 per depositor.

Shipping and Communication.-The registered shipping of Canada, including vessels for inland navigation, comprised at the end of the calendar year 1899 1,942 steamers, with a net tonnage of 157,185; and 4,631 sailing vessels, with a net tonnage of 499,552. In 1899, 13,909 sea-going vessels entered at Canadian ports and 13,212 cleared; the tonnage was 6,733,151 and 6,503,903 respectively. Of

the total number of vessels entered, 5,537, with a tonnage of 921,184, were Canadian; 2,563, with a tonnage of 2,2,486,311, were British; and 5,809, with a tonnage of 2,325,656 were foreign. The coasting navigation during the same year amounted to nearly 16,000,000 tons, almost exclusively in British and Canadian vessels. The water-ways of the Dominion have a total length of over 2,700 miles. The traffic through the canals in 1899 amounted to 7,594,304 tons; and the tolls to $276,658, as compared with $325,149 in the preceding year. Of the total tonnage, 4,308,571 tons were divided between 23,579 Canadian steamers and sailing vessels; and 3,285,733 tons between 6,101 United States steamers and sailing vessels. The railway lines of the Dominion in operation had, at the end of the fiscal year 1900, a total length of 17,657 miles, as compared with 17,358 miles at the end of the preceding year. The train mileage increased from 52,215,207 in 1899, to 55,177,871 in 1900; the number of passengers from 19,133,365 to 21,500,175; the freights, from 31,211,753 tons to 35,946,183 tons. The earnings for 1900 amounted to $70,740,270 ($62,243,784 in 1899), or $4.006 per train mile; and the working expenses to $47,699,798 ($40,706,217 in 1899), or $2.701 per train mile. The private companies, with 16,146 miles of road in operation, had at the end of 1900 a paid-up capital of $933,632,205; the government railways, with a mileage of 1,511, had a paid-up capital of $64,636,200. The proportion of expense to receipts on the private lines during 1900 was 65.21 per cent.; while the government lines show a percentage of 98.42. The total amount paid out by the Dominion government in railway subsidies from 1883 to the end of the fiscal year 1900 was $20,200,312. The telegraph lines of Canada had at the end of 1900 a total length of 34,623 miles, of which 3,906 miles (including 240 miles of cable) were owned by the government. The private lines belong to the Great Northwestern Telegraph Company, the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, and the Western Union Telegraph Company. The number of post offices at the end of the fiscal year 1900 was 9.627. The postal revenue and expenditures for the same year amounted to $4,345,823, and $4,807,484 respectively; while the amount of mail subsidies paid out by the department of trade and commerce for the year was $599,832.

Education.-Public_instruction in Canada is entirely under the control of the separate provinces. The number of public schools for the entire Dominion in 1900 was 17,989, with an enrollment of 945,088. Of other schools there were 974, with a total enrollment of 143,064. The revenue from all the schools was $9,985,226, of which the government contributed $1,251,611. The expenditures amounted to $9,461,496. Canada has 17 degree-conferring institutions, and about 25 colleges. The libraries number 535, of which 380 are public, and 418 are situated in the province of Ontario. The total number of volumes is 1,972,056, and of pamphlets, 122,746.

HISTORY.

Political Parties.-In Canada, as in Great Britain, Conservatives and Liberals constitute the chief political parties. The Conservatives, it may be noted, prefer to be called Liberal-Conservatives. With the exception of one interval of five years, the Conservatives were in power from the establishment of the Dominion in 1867 until 1896. In the general elections of the latter year the Liberals, under Sir Wilfrid Laurier, were placed in power by large majorities, notwithstanding that the united Catholic influence was on the side of the Conservatives. There were returned to the House of Commons 118 Liberals, 86 Conservatives, and 8 independents of Liberal leanings. The general elections of 1900 resulted as follows: Liberals, 125; Conservatives, 78; independents, 10. Sir Wilfrid Laurier, as premier, continued in power. Mr. R. L. Borden, senior member for Halifax, was unanimously chosen as Conservative leader in succession to Sir Charles Tupper, who, rejected by Cape Breton in the last election, retired from public life in his eightieth year on score of age, refusing offers of constituencies from every province. Mr. Louis Philippe Brodeur was elected speaker of the House.

The census returns of 1901 will effect a change in the next decennial distribution of seats, the unit of representation in the House of Commons being based on the population of Quebec, whose representation is fixed at 65 members. Manitoba, in consequence, will gain 3 members, the Northwest Territories and British Columbia 2 each, while Nova Scotia will lose 2 and New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island I each.

Parliamentary Session.-Lord Minto, the governor-general, opened the ninth Parliament of the Dominion on February 7, 1901, the members having assembled the day previous to take the oath of allegiance to the new King. In his speech, Lord Minto referred to the marvelous progress made in the mining and agricultural regions of western Canada, to the great improvements effected in the navigation of the St. Lawrence by the widening and deepening of the channel between Quebec and Montreal, and to various other matters connected with the Dominion's development. The chief business of the session included the following: The appointment of a railway commission, intrusted with plenary powers to enforce

the provisions of the Railway Act, especially to prevent a recurrence of discrimination in railway freight rates injurious to agricultural interests in the western parts of the Dominion; the establishment of a branch of the Royal Mint to coin Yukon and British Columbia gold into Dominion currency as required, and the balance into English sovereigns (previously there had been no Canadian gold coinage); the installation of the Marconi wireless telegraphy system in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, with a preliminary station at Anticosti; the connection by cable of Belle Isle with the joint line to Quebec; and the voting of an annual subsidy of $100,000 for a direct steamship line between Canada and France, half the vessels to be under the British and half under the French flags, so that subsidies would be earned from both countrics. Tenders were also invited by the Dominion government for a service of fast steamships between Canada and England. It was estimated that with vessels of 21 knots an hour the passage could be made in less than four days between Queenstown, Ireland, and Sydney, Cape Breton, the suggested terminals. The Montreal Board of Trade asked for the appointment of a Royal Commission to investigate the alleged discrimination against the St. Lawrence route by English marine insurance underwriters, and also advocated the establishment of a Canadian Lloyds Maritime Insurance Association.

Imperial Relations.-The death of Queen Victoria and the accession of King Edward VII. were marked with the customary solemnities and ceremonies. The Dominion Parliament decreed that May 24, the Queen's birthday, should be known as Victoria Day and be kept as a holiday for all time. The Dominion's memorial takes the form of a Victoria National Museum in Ottawa, to cost $1,000,000. In September, 1901, the visit and tour of the Duke of Cornwall, heir apparent to the throne (who became Prince of Wales on November 9, 1901), accompanied by the Duchess of Cornwall evoked in Canada enthusiastic expressions of loyalty, though the brilliant proceedings were tinged with the sadness occasioned by the assassination of President McKinley. The day of the President's funeral was marked by a suspension of the spectacular parts of the programme attending the royal visit. Throughout the Dominion generally, and at Ottawa in particular, the maintenance of imperial unity and of loyalty to the mother country was manifested in the continued support accorded to the prosecution of the Boer war, especially in the numerous enlistments for the South African constabulary. The question of colonial representation in the Imperial House of Lords and on the judicial committee of the privy council, as tending to increase the efficiency of the tribunal and make it more popular as a court of final resort from the colonies, received the cordial support of the Anglo-Canadian legal fraternity. On the other hand, the question of national independence as the principal plank of a Parliamentary party, was prominently urged by French lawyers and Liberal members, who believe that an independent commonwealth secured by constitutional means would progress more rapidly, although the status quo is to be preferred to annexation to the United States. Early in 1901 the relations between Great Britain and Canada were succinctly defined in a speech at Toronto by Sir Wilfrid Laurier, the premier, who said: "Canada, while still a colony, is practically an independent nation, and the result of the present system has been to lead to thoughts of closer union than ever before. While no one supposes that the present relations with Great Britain are to last, they are satisfactory at the present day, and when in the course of the future new problems shall arise, they will be faced and solved on the strictest lines of Canadian nationality and British citizenship." The visit in November, 1901, of the Irish Nationalist delegates, during their American tour, was interesting as a phase of the question of imperial unity. The delegates, Mr. J. Redmond, M. P., Mr. P. A. McHugh, M. P., and Mr. O'Donnell, M. P., received a cordial welcome at Ottawa by a large audience, which included the three ministers of state, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Mr. Scott, and Mr. Sifton. Mr. Redmond, in a moderate speech, held that the Canadian example of home rule afforded the strongest possible argument in favor of the concession of the Irish demand, and broadly hinted that another expression by the Canadian Parliament in favor of Irish home rule would be acceptable. He justified the use of physical force, if necessary, but declared that his party relied on constitutional measures to secure responsible government for Ireland. The question of national and imperial defense received its due share of agitation, and the burden of the defense and maintenance of the chief Canadian stations and border posts were strongly urged by voice and press, of Anglo-Saxon tendencies, upon the Canadian government as a natural sequence to the growth and prosperity of the Dominion.

In the British Parliament the budget proposals of the Dominion government came into prominence over the statement that the minister of finance maintained the preference of 33 1-3 per cent. granted on British imports, even when the colonies were freed from the restraining foreign treaties of 1862 and 1865, and information was desired whether any reciprocal arrangement on the part of England was to be made concerning Canadian goods. A reply was elicited that while the action of