of stations in the United States is 60. Of these, 54 receive appropriations provided for by Act of Congress. The total income of the stations during 1901 was $1,231,881. The stations employ 719 persons in the work of administration and inquiry. The activity and success of the stations in bringing the results of their work before the public continued unabated. During the year they published 445 annual reports and bulletins. These were supplied to over half a million addresses on the regular mailing lists. A larger number of stations than formerly supplemented their regular publications with more or less frequent issues of press bulletins, and most of the stations report a large and constantly increasing correspondence with farmers on a wide variety of topics.

In Alaska stations have been continued at Sitka and Kenai, and a new station has been established at Rampart in the Yukon Valley. A preliminary agricultural survey of the Copper River region indicates that agricultural operations may be successfully conducted over a wide area there. It was shown that considerable quantities of hardy vegetables, such as potatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, turnips, lettuce, and radishes are already being grown in the interior, and there are large areas which may be used for this purpose and also for the production of grasses and forage plants. At the station at Rampart, rye and barley were matured. At Sitka the experiments with cereals, forage crops, and vegetables were continued and a considerable number of varieties were successfully grown. Good silage was also made of native grasses and stored in a log silo. At Kenai the experiments with cereals and vegetables were continued with considerable success. Seeds were distributed to 400 persons living in different parts of Alaska, and a considerable number of reports were received of those grown during the season of 1900. It is evident that the efforts of the government to aid in the development of agriculture in Alaska are greatly appreciated by residents of that Territory, and that they have already received substantial benefits from the work of the Alaska experiment stations.

In Hawaii a station was established by the national government in 1901 at Honolulu. Land has been cleared, buildings erected, and experiments begun. The station's work will include investigations in horticulture, coffee and taro culture, stock raising, poultry, diseases of plants and animals, and irrigation. The station for the sugar industry, supported by the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, has been continued on an independent basis.

In Porto Rico a station has been begun but not yet permanently located, and experiments in coffee culture have been undertaken at Rio Piedras. Studies of injurious insects and plant diseases have been begun, and a soil survey of a portion of the island is in progress. Improved varieties of seeds and plants are being distributed.

The stations in Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico are directly managed by the United States Department of Agriculture through the Office of Experiment Stations, which also continues to act as a central agency for all the stations in the United States. In 1901 this office issued Vol. XII. of the Experiment Station Record and numerous other publications largely based on the work of the stations. A collective station exhibit was made at the Pan-American Exposition. The stations in general were unusually prosperous in 1901. Their work was increased in extent and efficiency, especially by a closer affiliation with the Department of Agriculture and by the material enlargement of the resources of the colleges with which they are connected. The appreciation of the results of station work which practical farmers show increases from year to year.

A Bureau of Agriculture has been created by the Philippine Commission to conduct investigations and disseminate information regarding the agricultural resources and development of the Philippine Islands. Prof. F. Lawson-Scribner, formerly agrostologist of the United States Department of Agriculture, has been appointed chief of this bureau.

During 1901 there was much governmental activity for the advancement of agriculture in other countries both in the Old World and the New. The Russian Department of Agriculture and Imperial Domains inaugurated a system of commissioners of agriculture who will correspond in a general way to our commissioners of agriculture or to our secretaries of State board of agriculture. Each commissioner's office will have connected with it a corps of agricultural specialties who will work among the landowners and peasants. The Russian Department of Agriculture and Imperial Domains is also displaying considerable activity in its soil and forestry investigations and in the establishment of stations for the investigation of special subjects, such as the growing of flax, cotton, olives, etc.

In England the Board of Agriculture has made larger grants than formerly to agricultural colleges and societies for conducting agricultural investigations, and a private experiment station has been established in Lancashire. In Australia the Victorian Department of Agriculture is undergoing reorganization.

The Austrian government has recently established several experiment stations, notably the station for plant culture at Brünn, the station for investigations in plant and animal production at Otterbach, and an agricultural physiological station, with divisions of chemistry, physiology, and bacteriology, at Prague. In Hungary an experiment station for the analysis and study of wines was established in 1901 at Fiume.

France has established at Nogent-sur-Marne a Colonial Garden to have administrative control over French colonial stations and botanic gardens in different parts of the world and to furnish these institutions with seeds and plants. During the year œnological stations were established at Toulouse and Beaune and an agricultural station at Besançon.

In Germany two new stations have been established-a flax culture station at Sorau and a viticultural experiment station at Weinsberg. The West Indian Department of Agriculture, Barbados, has established three new stations at Montserrat and one at Tortola. Brazil has recently established a botanical garden and experimental demonstration field at San Vicente, and the Argentine Republic has decided to establish four experiment stations on the same general plan as those in the United States. A department of agriculture, with a small staff of experts, has been organized at Bangalore by the government of Mysore, India; also a dairy station at Gembloux, Belgium; a veterinary pathological institute and animal vaccine institute at Christiania, Norway; and an irrigation experiment station at Calgary, Canada. See DAIRYING, HORTICULTURE, and IRRIGATION.

AGUINALDO, EMILIO, the leader of the Filipino insurrection against the United States, was captured March 23, 1901, by Brig.-Gen. Frederick Funston (q.v.), at Palanan, in the island of Luzon, while in command of a temporary headquarters there. On April 2, he took the oath of allegiance at Manila and issued a proclamation to the Filipinos, in which he advised them to lay down their arms and acknowledge the sovereignty of the United States. He was assigned to quarters in Manila, under careful surveillance, and continued to advise peace among his old followers, it being his opinion that the Filipinos who held out against the American troops were ignorant of the real strength of the United States and unfamiliar with what had already been done toward restoring order in the islands. Aguinaldo was born about 1870, of Spanish parentage, and as a child served in the household of a Jesuit priest, where the opportunity to obtain an education was afforded him. At fifteen he entered the College of St. John de Letran at Manila, where he studied medicine, and in 1888 went to Hong Kong for further study. In 1896 he became prominent as a leader of the Filipino insurrection against Spanish rule, was exiled to Hong Kong, it is said in the pay of Spain, and when the American forces first occupied Manila in 1808, he cooperated with them. But his demand for Filipino independence, the condition of further aid from him, was denied by the American authorities, whereupon he set up a rebel government, of which he was the head. From that time (June 23, 1898) until he was captured, Aguinaldo directed the rebel forces with considerable ability, maintaining his supremacy by the exercise of an unusual shrewdness. His motives have been questioned, but he has generally been regarded as a shrewd guerrilla fighter and a man of intelligence and force. Although at first in close confinement at Manila, his consistent friendliness toward the Americans soon gained him considerable liberty.

AHERNE, JAMES. See HERNE, JAMES A.

AIR-SHIP. See AERIAL NAVIGATION.

ALABAMA, one of the Gulf States of the United States, has an area of 52,250 square miles. The capital is Montgomery. Alabama was organized as a territory March 3, 1817, and admitted as a State December 14, 1819. The population in 1900 was 1,828,697, while in June, 1901, as estimated by the government actuary, it was 1,862,000. The population of the three largest cities in 1900 were: Mobile, 38,469; Birmingham, 38,415; and Montgomery, 30,346.

Finances.-The receipts for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1900, were $2,656,350.78 and the disbursements $2,198,420.17, leaving a surplus for the year of $597.399. For the fiscal year ending September 30, 1901, the receipts were estimated at $2,547,500, and the disbursements at $2,526,970. The bonded indebtedness on September 30, 1900, amounted to $9,357,600, entailing an annual interest charge of $448,680. The total value of property in the state as returned for taxation in 1900 was $266,893,288. At the same time, the tax rate was 7 1-2 mills, of which 5 1-2 mills was for general purposes and two mills for school and pension purposes. For the banking interests of Alabama, see BANKS BANKING.

Steel and Allied Industries.-Although Alabama is primarily an agricultural State, the census tables show that there has been a large growth in manufacturing and mercantile industries during the last half century. The population has increased during these years from 771,623 to 1,828,697, or 137 per cent., while the average

number of industrial wage-earners has increased from 4,936 to 52,902, or 971.8 per cent., aggregating in 1900 2.9 per cent. of the total population. The total amount of capital, exclusive of capital stock, invested in 1900 in mercantile industries was $70,370,081, and the gross value of products, excluding material to the amount of $21, 844,174 re-used in the process of manufacture, was $82,793,804. The large increase in the manufactures of Alabama is in a great measure due to the development of extensive deposits of iron, coal, limestone, and dolomite, which are found in unusual proximity and quantity in the Birmingham district. Directly dependent upon these natural resources is the manufacture of iron and steel, whose products in 1900 were valued at $17,392,483, or 21 per cent. of the total value of the products of the State. Related to the iron and steel industry is the manufacture of foundry and machineshop products, whose output in 1900 was valued at $5,482,441, an increase of 149.7 per cent. since 1890. This industry has been stimulated by the large production of pig iron, and has in turn reacted to increase that production. Other important correlated industries are the manufacture of cast iron pipe, stoves, car wheels, boilers, engines, wire nails, tubing, and cotton ties. Owing to the fact that six railroads centre in Birmingham, car-shop and construction work has largely developed, the production in 1900 being valued at $4,172,192, an increase during the decade of 163.9 per cent. Connected with iron manufactures is the manufacture of coke, whose products in 1900 were valued at $3,726,433, giving Alabama third rank in the Union in this industry. It is noteworthy that the great development of manufactures in the northern part of the State has taken place largely without the advantage of navigable water for the cheap shipment of products. For years efforts have been made to connect the Birmingham district with tidewater at Mobile Bay by means of the construction of a canal and locks on the Warrior River. Of the five locks projected three were completed in 1895, and a route for the canal has been surveyed by United States engineers. It is estimated that water communication with Mobile would reduce freight charges on iron by 90 per cent.

Other Industries.-The manufacture of lumber and timber ranks second in importance among the industries of the State, the product in 1900 being valued at $8,507,971, an increase of 51.2 per cent. in the decade. Dependent upon this industry is the manufacture of turpentine and resin, whose products in 1900 were valued at $2,033,705. Notwithstanding the increase in the timber industry a considerable portion of Alabama's forests have never yet been cut. The lower part of the maritime pine belt is considered equal in extent and quality to the timber lands in the corresponding parts of Florida and Mississippi, and is said to be unsurpassed by the most favored sections of Atlantic pine forests. The third considerable industry in the State, the manufacture of cotton goods, is dependent upon Alabama's cotton crop, which in 1899 amounted to 1,103,690 commercial bales, or 11.4 per cent. of the total production of the United States. Cotton goods manufacturing is a recent industry in the State and has increased in the great ratio of 172 per cent. within the decade; products in 1890 being valued at $2,190,771 and in 1900 at $5,962,365. Allied to this industry is the manufacture of cotton-seed oil and cake, the products valued in 1900 at $2,985,890, an increase during the decade of 148 per cent. Other industries are flour and grist milling, with products valued in 1900 at $3,310,757, and the manufacture of fertilizers, the products in 1900 valued at $2,068,162.

Constitutional Convention.-In accordance with the results of the election held in August, 1900, at which time the question of calling a convention to amend the constitution was affirmatively voted upon, a constitutional convention met in Montgomery in May, 1901, to revise or rather to rewrite the constitution. The most important work of the convention and the purpose for which it was primarily called was to draw up a new franchise law. For when the State constitution was adopted in 1875, the negro's right to vote was specifically guaranteed, in accordance with direction of Congress. As a result, extensive intimidation and ballot stuffing were practised to maintain the supremacy of the whites. That the whites did remain supreme is shown by the message of Governor Johnston to the legislature on May 2, 1899, in which, opposing the proposed convention, he said: "There is not a negro in all the Commonwealth holding an office under the present constitution, nor a justice of the peace, nor a constable, nor a single member of the General Assembly, nor has there been for nearly a generation." But it was thought by the State leaders that an end should be put to ballot stuffing and fraud, and that the disenfranchisement of the negroes should be accomplished by legal methods. The Democratic State platform, upon which the convention was elected, promised the voters to secure the legal maintenance of white domination without disenfranchising any white man except for crime and without violating the constitution of the United States. Owing largely to the excellent educational work done at Tuskegee Institute, Ala., and to the tact and ability of its president, Booker T. Washington, there was less antagonistic race feeling in Alabama than in several other southern States, and for this reason the proceedings of the convention were regarded with special interest. Shortly after

the convention opened a memorial, understood to have been drafted by Booker T. Washington, was presented, recounting the homely virtues of the negroes, their fidelity to their masters' interests at the time of the civil war, the errors and efforts they had since made, and concluding that while they knew that the task before the convention was a "delicate, trying, and perplexing one," they asked for such laws as would discriminate justly between good and bad citizenship wherever found and would not "merely change the name and form of fraud." This memorial was ordered by the convention to be immediately printed, and in other ways manifestation was made of a desire to remove from the convention all racial animus. Nevertheless the convention considered that negro suffrage should be restricted, and as this could not be done directly without violating the constitution of the United States, it was done indirectly and "ingeniously." See paragraph on Suffrage and Elections.

Other important and necessary changes made in the constitution, as stated by a committee of the convention in an open letter issued previous to the election of November 11, 1901, are as follows: The constitution of 1901 appropriates of its own vigor about eight times as much as the old constitution for public schools. In fact, the new constitution appropriates each year for this purpose nearly one-half of all the taxes levied and collected in the State, and it further directs the legislature to increase this fund from time to time as the resources of the State may justify. And although the new constitution prohibits a child of either race from attending a school of the other race, that provision of the old constitution is strengthened which provides that the public school fund shall be used equally for the benefit of both races. Under the old constitution, the legislators were so immersed in private and special bills to the exclusion of general bills that they came to represent almost solely their respective localities and not the State as a whole. Bills were habitually passed giving every manner of undue advantage to counties or corporations, and these local bills became an intolerable abuse. Under the new constitution, this evil is believed to have been absolutely annihilated, local and special bills being prohibited, and in order to prevent too frequent changes of laws, the legislature is to meet but once in four years. The governor also is believed to be saved under the new constitution from improper motives by the lengthening of his term to four years, making him ineligible to succeed himself, and denying him during his term of office and for one year thereafter the right to election or appointment to the United States Senate or any office under the State. The financial stability of counties and cities is protected by the provision that no county shall become liable for an amount including existing indebtedness of more than 32 per cent. of its assessed property; that cities and towns with a population of less than 6,000 cannot incur an indebtedness exceeding 5 per cent. except for the purchase and construction of public utilities, for which an additional 3 per cent. may be incurred; that cities of over 6,000 cannot become indebted for more than 7 per cent. of their assessed property except for improvements noted above, and that cities and towns of over 6,000 are forbidden to grant any municipal public utility franchises for a longer period than thirty years. Private corporations can no longer be chartered by a special act. The legislature is required to provide for the payment of a franchise tax by corporations, and when this tax is levied on foreign corporations, it must be in proportion to the amount of capital stock employed by the corporation in the State. Railroads are forbidden to give free passes or sell tickets at a discount to members of the legislature or any officer exercising judicial functions under the laws of the State. Special authority is given the governor to refund the State debt, and it is declared in substance that any appropriations made by the legislature shall not hinder the State from using all money in the treasury, if necessary, to protect the public faith. With these provisions removing the uncertainties of the present constitution, it is believed that there is no doubt that the State debt may be refunded at a much lower rate of interest, saving many thousands per annum to the taxpayers, and many times the cost of the convention. Amendments to the constitution may be proposed by three-fifths of the members of each house instead of as at present by two-thirds. Provisions of the Constitution-Rights and Guarantees.-From the new constitution are omitted several of the features of the bill of rights of the old constitution adopted under the military pressure of the reconstruction days. Among these omitted provisions is that declaring that no educational or property qualification for suffrage or office shall ever be enacted; also, one announcing that the people of Alabama accept as final the established fact that there can be no secession from the Union, and, finally, one declaring that all citizens of the United States and of Alabama shall possess equal civic and political rights. In the new constitution the clause of the old constitution prohibiting the legislature from granting irrevocable grants of privileges, is strengthened by adding that "every grant of a franchise, privilege, or immunity shall forever remain subject to revocation, alteration, or amendment." In order to do away with some of the difficulties that have been encountered in criminal trials in the State, especially those where negroes have been

defendants and public feeling against them has run high, the new constitution provides that the legislature may by a general law provide for a change of venue at the instance of the defendant, and that such trials may be determined without the presence of the defendant if he is imprisoned elsewhere, and that while no person may be twice put in jeopardy for the same offense, yet judges may discharge juries for cause and the prisoner shall not then be deemed to have been placed on trial.

Legislature.—The new constitution changes the time for State elections from August to November; both State senators and representatives are to be chosen for four years and the legislature, instead of meeting biennially as before, is to meet quadrennially. To insure so far as possible honesty and efficiency in the legislature, several novel and interesting stipulations are made in the constitution. The most important of these are as follows: No one except legislators and press representatives may be admitted to the floor of the House except by unanimous vote-thus excluding lobbyists; no bill may become law until it has been referred to a standing committee of each House, acted upon by such committees and returned by them, and the action of the committee noted upon the journal of each House; no revenue bills may be passed during the last five days of the session, or, as it might be more properly put, "railroaded through during the closing hours of the session;" with a few excepted cases, the legislature is prohibited from passing special or local laws; but the legislature is directed to enact laws for the reasonable restraint, prohibition, and regulation of corporations and trusts, so as to prevent the unreasonable scarcity of articles or the restraint of competition or unreasonable increase in the prices of commodities. In the interests of both races, the legislature is prohibited from ever passing any law to authorize or legalize any marriage between any white person and a negro or descendant of a negro.

Suffrage and Elections.-The most important provisions of the new constitution were those restricting the suffrage with the avowed purpose of eliminating the ignorant or venal negro vote. The old constitution, as stated by a committee of the convention in an open letter to the people before the election of November 11, 1901, had been drawn up in 1875 when the North was still convinced that an electorate controlled by negroes was both possible and justifiable. This old constitution provided in the matter of the suffrage that all residents, not insane, who had not been convicted of crime were entitled to vote if they were citizens of the United States. The new constitution intended to adjust the suffrage to the actual needs and conditions of the State, provided a double electoral qualification system so that, first, all white persons then in the State might be registered, and that, second, all other persons might register whose qualifications would make them desirable citizens. More exactly, the constitution provided that at any time until December 20, 1902, the following might register as life electors: all persons who had served in the armies of the United States or of the Confederate States, and all descendants of such persons; and all persons who were of good character and who understood the duties and obligations of citizenship under a republican form of government. Of this good character and the duties of citizenship, a board of three registrars appointed in each county were to be the judges, though appeals from their decisions might be taken to the State courts. Second, after January 1, 1903, all those not previously registered as life voters might vote who were qualified as follows: First, those who could read and write any article of the constitution, and who, unless physically disabled, had been engaged in some lawful occupation or calling for the greater part of the twelve months preceding the time they offered to register, or those who were either bonafide owners of forty acres of land in the State or owners of real or personal property whose assessed value was $300 or more. The clause prescribing that the voter must have been engaged in some lawful occupation was stated to have been specifically aimed against those negroes of the younger generation who were sufficiently educated not to be debarred by an educational qualification, but who were nevertheless too lazy to work, who were undesirable citizens generally, and apt to be politically corrupt.

Executive.-Novel features in the formulation of rules for the executive department of the government provided that the attorney-general, secretary of state, and state auditor should constitute a board of pardons to advise the governor as to all petitions for pardon, but that the governor might act either in accordance with or contrary to their recommendations, and that if a prisoner escaped from a sheriff through the latter's fault and suffered death or other bodily harm, the sheriff might be impeached and removed from office and should not be eligible for any other office during the time he had been elected to serve as sheriff.

Elections-At the elections held in Alabama on November 11, 1901, for the ratification or rejection of the new constitution, the vote cast was 108,613 for adoption and 81,734 for rejection; thus giving a majority for adoption of 26,879. The total vote cast, 190,347, was much heavier than that in 1900, when the total vote cast for president was 155,240 and for governor, 162,319, indicating apparently that the negroes