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The largest items of revenue are direct taxes and customs, and the largest expenditures are for public works, instruction and worship, and finance. The estimated revenue and expenditure for 1901 were 55,314,144 francs and 55,237,675 francs respectively (the franc is worth 19.3 cents). The figure for expenditure is exclusive of the estimates for war, marine, and service of the debt, which, if added, would show a considerable deficit. Such deficits, which are usual, are met by France. Industries and Commerce.-Agriculture is the chief occupation of the inhabitants. The production in quintals (220.46 pounds) in 1899, was reported as follows: Barley, 7,203,965; rye, 5,021,165; wheat, 1,042,908; oats, 658,067. In that year there were produced 4,502,028 hectolitres of wine; in 1900, 5,444,180 hectolitres. Cork and esparto are important products. Algeria is rich in mineral deposits, but development has been retarded by lack of transportion facilities. From 1896 to 1900 Algeria exported 3,845,566 tons of mineral ores; of these 2,553,600 were iron, 1,136,200 phosphates, 135,800 zinc, 16,400 lead, and 3,500 copper. The outputs in tons for 1899 and 1900 were respectively: Iron, 633,300 and 604,000; phosphates, 281,000 and 273,500; zinc, 36,900 and 30,200; lead, 6,200 and 2,100; copper, 1,600 and 24. The foregoing figures show a total decline of about 50,000 tons, but the outlook for 1901 was more favorable. It was expected that work would be resumed in the Guerromna mines, abandoned since 1893, and other enterprises were projected. In the special trade the imports and exports in 1898 amounted to 290,059,706 francs and 265,543,209 francs respectively, the imports from and the exports to France being 225,535,389 francs and 224,451,296 francs respectively. Similar figures for 1899 are 309,947,382 and 325,407,699 for the total, and 260,421,593 and 271,467,620 for the French trade.

Communications.-One of the most important methods taken by the French government in its successful development of Algeria is the construction of roads, railways, harbors, etc. In 1898 the national roads had a total length of 1,815 miles. The railways in the same year aggregated 1,821 miles, and in 1900 2,156 miles; these figures include 325 miles in Tunis (q.v.). The railway extending from the coast to Ain-Sefra, in Southern Oran, is being continued still further south; the section from Ain-Sefra to Zubia (125 kilometres) was opened in October, 1901. In 1898 there were 7,260 miles of telegraph line. A telegraph cable between Oran and Tangier (Morocco) was opened on June 24, 1901.

History. During 1901, violent anti-Semitic feeling in Algeria resulted in riots and other disturbances; there was a number of native outbreaks more or less important. In April, the Arab tribe known as the Beni Ben Asser sacked the village of Marguerite, 50 miles from Algiers, killing many of the inhabitants. The rebels were driven to the mountains by the troops. The outbreak led the governor-general, M. Jonnart, to address to the Algerian prefects a circular in which he reiterated the need of applying various administrative reforms which he proposed in September, 1900. He insisted that it was the duty of the administrators of the mixed communes to lay aside "red tape" and to "participate actively in the progress of ideas and the general life and progress of the community by taking the initiative in proposals intended to favor not only the development of colonization, but the condition of the natives and their material and moral situation." In a debate in the French chamber on the Algerian uprising, Algerian deputies accused British missionaries of carrying on an anti-French propaganda and distributing rifles among the natives. The latter accusation was subsequently declared by the premier, M. Waldeck-Rousseau, to be entirely false. On May 17, 1901, M. Jonnart resigned the governor-generalship on the ground of ill health. He was succeeded, June 18, by M. Paul Revoil. M. Revoil, who is a brother of the late Georges Revoil, the explorer of Somaliland, has occupied a number of government positions, including the posts of minister to Brazil, sub-resident at Tunis, and minister to Morocco. See FRANCE (paragraph Colonial Policy).

ALIEN INSANE. See INSANITY.

ALLAN, ANDREW, Canadian shipbuilder and owner, died in Montreal, Quebec, June 27, 1901. He was born at Saltcoats, Scotland, December 1, 1822, and went to Canada in 1839. In 1846 he joined his brother in Montreal and the firm established a line of fast-sailing packets between Canada and Great Britain, to which in 1853 were added steamships. In 1882 Allan became head of the company, which is now known as the Allan Line. For some years he was chairman of the Board of Harbor Commissioners of Montreal.

ALLAN, GEORGE WILLIAM, Canadian statesman, died at Toronto, Canada, July 24, 1901. He was born at York (now Toronto) January 9, 1822, was educated at the Upper Canada College, and began to practice law in 1846. After an extended tour of the world, Mr. Allan entered municipal politics, and in 1885 was elected mayor of Toronto. In 1858 he was sent to the Legislative Council of Upper Canada as a representative of Toronto, a seat which he held until the confederation in

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1867. By royal proclamation he was called to the newly organized Canadian Senate in the same year, and remained a member until his death. He served as speaker of the Senate (1888-91), and was appointed (1891) a member of the Canadian Privy Council. From 1877 he served as chancellor of the University of Trinity College at Toronto. He was a man of generous public spirit.

ALUMINUM. The production of aluminum in 1900, as reported by the U. S. Geological Survey, was about 6,000,000 pounds, as compared with 5,200,000 pounds in 1899. All of this was manufactured by the Pittsburg Reduction Company, which contemplates the erection of works at Shawanigan Falls, Quebec. The total value of the imports for 1900 was $50,444, and included the crude material, bars, rods, sheet and manufactured aluminum. There is a tendency to use aluminum instead of copper in the manufacture of electrical conductors, on account of its cheapness, and several transmission lines of this material have been erected. Aluminum conductors have not been in use long enough to establish the durability of the metal. Aluminum, when used for electrical work, must be very pure, for the presence of impurities has a marked effect on the conductivity, the action of iron being especially noticeable. With regard to the resistance of the wire to corrosion, sodium seems to exert the most injurious effect, after which comes silicon. J. B. C. Kershaw found that aluminum became badly corroded in towns where there was much sulphurous acid gas in the atmosphere. J. H. Pratt has published a paper on the Sources and Uses of Aluminum (American Manufacturer, Oct. 31, 1901). AMBIDEXTERITY. See PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL.

AMENT, WILLIAM SCOTT, an American missionary in China, one of the eight hundred white Christians besieged in Peking during the summer of 1900. His action in appropriating a deserted Chinese residence for the housing of the native Christians under his charge and disposing of certain articles found in the house, was widely discussed in the press. He was born at Owosso, Mich., September 14, 1851; educated at Oberlin College and Andover Theological Seminary, and in 1877 went to China as a missionary under appointment of the Foreign Missions Board. After serving three years at Pao-Ting, he was transferred to Peking. Dr. Ament was in charge of native Christians, to the number of 3,000, and of 800 white residents when Peking was relieved by the allied forces in June, 1900. As an expedient to provide shelter for those under his charge, he seized the house of a Boxer leader, and, to provide food, sold clothing and bric-a-brac found in the house to the amount of $2,500. Through an agreement with the Chinese government, this sum was deducted from an indemnity fund of $30,000 demanded for the families of murdered Chinese Christians and for loss of property due to the Boxer uprising.

AMERICAN ACADEMY OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE. See POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE, AMERICAN ACADEMY OF.

AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS, founded in 1810, thereby claiming the distinction of being the oldest foreign missionary society in the United States, has in the past 90 years of service sent out 2,324 missionaries and organized some 500 churches, into which have been received nearly 155,000 members, a work requiring the expenditure of about $32,000,000. The board in 1901 maintained in 20 missions with 97 stations, and numerous outstations and places for stated preaching, 544 missionaries and 3,483 native workers; there are 505 churches and 929 Sunday-schools, including respectively 50,892 members and 66,601 scholars, statistics which indicate a year of growth. The medical and educational departments are noteworthy features of the work; some 40 persons are engaged in the former branch, while the latter maintains 1,238 schools, not including 13 colleges with 2,132 students and 17 theological seminaries with 228 students, which have a total attendance of 62,188 pupils. Contributions from home sources in 1901 aggregated $697,370, to which was added $147,879 by native Christians, a total of $845,249. The ninety-second annual meeting of the board, October 8-11, 1901, in Hartford, Conn., witnessed the liquidation of the entire debt of $102,000, an excess over that amount being subscribed. The resumption of missionary work, as far as possible, in the disorganized Chinese fields was reported, and interesting figures, based on the amount of home and native contributions in proportion to wage rate prevailing in lands of these two sources, were offered to show that the natives are not mere beneficiaries. It is worthy of note that, of the total amount of contributions, but 61⁄2 per cent. on the average is expended on administration, the remainder being applied directly to missionary work. The convention of 1902 will meet in October, at Oberlin, Ohio. Rev. William Scott Ament of the American Board was the central figure in a controversy in 1901 over missionary methods in China; the discussion, provoked by an article by Mark Twain in the North American Review, assumed broad proportions in the press. The charge of robbery was met by Mr. Ament's explana

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tion that the collected indemnities went to reimburse native Christians (see AMENT, WILLIAM SCOTT). The abduction by brigands of Miss Ellen M. Stone, a missionary of the board to Bulgaria, has given rise to general interest and has initiated a widespread discussion on the ethics of ransom. See TURKEY (paragraphs on History).

The administrative office of the organization is at 14 Beacon Street, Boston. President, Samuel B. Capen, LL.D.; district secretaries, Rev. Charles C. Creegan, D.D., 105 East Twenty-second street, New York City, and Rev. A. N. Hitchcock, D.D., 153 La Salle Street, Chicago.

AMERICAN ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN.

AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN.

AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION. TION, AMERICAN.

See ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION,

See LIBRARY ASSOCIATION,

See MISSIONARY ASSOCIA

AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR. See FEDERATION OF LABOR, AMERICAN.

AMHERST COLLEGE, Amherst, Mass., founded in 1821, had in 1900-01 a faculty of 36 and a student body of 404. President, George Harris, D.D. During 1901 an addition of $210,000 was made to the endowment. Plans were adopted for the erection of an astronomical observatory during the coming year. During the year there were slight changes made in the curriculum, in the form of additional courses in Greek and Italian art, and in navigation. The college also adopted

the plan of making all courses elective after the freshman year. The income for the year from all sources was $104,000.

ANESTHESIA. The custom of giving nitrous oxide, or "laughing gas," as a preliminary to ether, is becoming common in large cities, where operations are frequent and professional anesthetists are to be found. The advantages of this method of producing general anesthesia are its agreeableness, especially to the nervous or to children, its avoidance of the irritation and choking sensations during the first stage of anesthesia, and the rapid action of the gas. The injection of cocaine into the spinal canal, termed subarachnoid, or rhachidian, or medullary anæsthesia, is supplanting general anesthesia in many cases. This process causes loss of sensation of feeling and of pain over a large area of the body, without the abolishment of consciousness. This method was suggested by Dr. J. Leonard Corning, of New York, who demonstrated its possibility in 1885. Professor Bier, of Kiel, revived the procedure in 1899, and Professor Tuffier, of Paris, adopted it enthusiastically in the same year. In securing this medullary anæsthesia the solution of cocaine is thrown into the fluid in the spinal cord canal by means of a long hypodermic needle, inserted generally between the second and third lumbar vertebræ. While by this method there is no effect on the heart, respiratory tract, or kidneys, no danger from pneumonia in the aged or feeble, less nausea and vomiting, all of which occur as concomitants of ether anesthesia, yet severe headache, vertigo, cyanosis, rise of temperature, weakness and loss of sphincter control may ensue, and most of these unpleasant conditions may last for a week. Mintz, of Moscow, suggests injecting a solution of sodium bromide with that of cocaine, a method by which he secured alleviation of the unpleasant symptoms following the analgesia. European obstetricians have had better results in the use of medullary anesthesia with women in labor than American physicians. The ninth and final report of the committee on anesthesia, appointed ten years ago by the British Medical Association, was published in 1901. Of 25,920 cases of anæsthesia in hospital and private practice, 13.393 were cases of chloroform anæsthesia: 4.595 of ether; 2,911 of nitrous oxide; 2,071 of nitrous oxide and ether; 678 of "A. C. E. mixture" (alcohol, chloroform, and ether); and the rest various combinations. The analysis of their figures shows that chloroform anesthesia was responsible for 78 cases of danger (including death), or 0.582 per cent. of the cases, while ether was responsible for but 3 danger cases, or 0.065 per cent.

ANAM or ANNAM, a French dependency on the China Sea, extending from Tonquin on the north to Cambodia and Cochin-China on the south, forms a division of the French colony of Indo-China. The estimated area is 88,780 square miles and the estimated population 6,000,000. The capital is Hué, population about 30.000. Anam is a protected native state which has been under French control since 1884. The administration, while nominally in the hands of a king and his officials, is supervised by the French resident, and the customs and finances are under the management of French officers. The local budget for 1900 balanced at 2,120,016 piastres, and the expenditures of France, on Anam and Tonquin combined, according to the budget of 1901, was 1,084,913 francs. Among the products

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are rice, maize, and other cereals, cinnamon, sugar, betel, tobacco, and bamboo. Raw silk, coarse crêpe, and earthenware are manufactured. The principal imports are cotton goods, tea, petroleum, paper, and tobacco; the chief exports, cinnamon and sugar. In 1899 the imports were valued at 4,100,000 francs and the exports 6,500,000 francs. In 1900 a contract was made for the construction of a railway from Hué to Turan, a port about 50 miles to the south. See INDO-CHINA.

ANARCHY. The word "anarchy" is usually construed literally to denote a state of lawlessness; it is also used broadly and interchangeably with "anarchism" to define a series of allied theories in economic, political, and social science, of which the basic principle is the right of the individual to personal well-being, freedom from civil authority, and liberty of action in all social relations. As this idea of “individual rights," characterizing the entire group of theories, is or is not pushed toward its ultimate logical conclusion, the resultant theoretical system vacillates between that fanatical position where every man's hand is necessarily raised against every other, and those milder and long-held philosophical beliefs that the authority of society over the individual should be restricted within the narrowest limits requisite to preserve the social order. The several graduations by which the extreme belief defined correctly as anarchism merges into a tenable politico-philosophical concept are very numerous and have all had able defenders. Anarchism proper, on the other hand, has rarely been defended by thinkers of ability, for the reason that this belief constitutes in effect a protest against sentient life itself, this protest following from the fact that the history of civilization demonstrates conclusively that sentient life, both in its bulk amount and in its higher degrees of complexity, is absolutely dependent upon restraints imposed by every individual upon every other, that is to say briefly, upon the maintenance of social and governmental authority. Deriving their name from anarchism and endeavoring to defend their actions by that theory, there have been organized mainly, during the nineteenth century, small and generally unconnected bodies of men and women, principally in Europe, who have fostered and disseminated the most extreme anarchistic beliefs, and have in some instances incited their members to crime against those in authority in the State. Quite as often, however, so-called anarchistic crimes have been committed by single individuals, disowned by the anarchistic bodies proper, and endeavoring only from special personal reasons to put into effect the logical conclusion of the anarchistic belief. It is against these sporadic anarchists, quite as much as against the_organized associations of anarchists, that restrictive measures have been devised in Europe. The assassination of President McKinley (see MCKINLEY, WILLIAM) on September 6, by Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist and a disciple of the notorious anarchist preacher and teacher, Emma Goldman, aroused an immediate and at the time passionate demand in the United States that Congress should enact laws at its next session sufficient to suppress the entire anarchistic brood throughout the country. It was pointed out that three presidents had been assassinated in thirty-six years-Lincoln in 1865, Garfield in 1881, and McKinley in 1901; that nests of avowed anarchists had existed for years undisturbed by State or national authority, in Paterson, N. J., in Chicago, Ill., and in other places; that hundreds of well-known anarchists, driven from European countries, were coming annually to the United States without let or hindrance; that every other great civilized country had devised the most stringent measures to suppress, expel, and punish anarchists, and still there was not a line on the statute books of the United States inimical to anarchists; and among the class of undesirable aliens which could be excluded from the United States under the immigration laws, anarchists were not included, the list being confined to "convicts, lunatics, idiots, and persons liable to become a public charge." To remedy this state of affairs, various and drastic measures were proposed, those most prominently advocated being (1) to prohibit all aliens known as anarchists from landing in the United States; (2) to deport all aliens and even naturalized citizens who subsequently became anarchists; (3) to suppress anarchistic societies, interdict their meetings, and punish their members; (4) to prohibit such scurrilous newspaper criticism of the government and of the President as might cause violent political feeling likely to incite light-headed persons to crime; (5) to surround the President with some more efficient bodyguard than one or two secret service men and the assumed goodwill of all people; and (6) to give to the federal government jurisdiction over criminal assaults upon the President and other high officials, and ambassadors and ministers of foreign governments, instead of, as at present, leaving the punishment of these crimes to the States in which they may be committed.

To the last of these proposed measures an almost spontaneous approval was given, both directly after President McKinley's assassination, when excitement ruled high, and at a later period, when a more critical spirit had begun to question the wisdom of some of the other recommended legislation. For it was recognized that whatever means of preventing anarchistic crime were finally judged to

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be best, the punishment of anarchists at least should lie with the national authority against which the attack had been primarily made. Moreover, not every State could be depended upon to conduct a trial of worldwide interest with the sureness and swiftness of verdict that had characterized the trial of Czolgosz in New York. And for that reason, as well as because they properly belonged to the government, such cases should be vested in the federal courts alone. The other proposals, dealing in general not with the punishment but with the methods of preventing anarchistic crime, and endeavoring to legislate, as it were, against a frame of mind rather than against an overt act, opened up to discussion a series of vexed questions. For if the measures devised were to be aimed solely against anarchists, it might be said that the greatest danger did not lie there, two Presidents having been assassinated by men who were not anarchists, and the assassination of President McKinley by an anarchist being unique in the history of the country. Again, if the legislation proposed should be directed against the immigration of secretly plotting anarchists, it might be answered a posteriori, and judging by a single instance, that this would be of little avail, for Czolgosz was a nativeborn American. Or, if avowed and notorious anarchists were to be debarred from the United States, then the immunity obtained would seem still more doubtful, for it was a fact attested by the prolonged and bitter experience of Europe that the talking and preaching anarchist was a most harmless creature, amorous not of felling crowned heads but filling sheets of paper and of entertaining large audiences; it was rather the silent fanatic anarchist, unknown to the police, often low in the councils of his fellows, who could not be guarded against and who was to be feared. Again, if repressive measures were taken against anarchists wherever found, their meetings broken up and their members imprisoned, would not a more dangerous, because a more secret, form of anarchism ensue? "After the Barcelona outrages," the Duke of Arcos stated in the North American Review, "Spain adopted the most drastic measures in the hope that assassination could be stamped out. It was provided that any man responsible for explosions likely to cause death or serious bodily injury should be executed or sentenced to penal servitude for life. Severe sentences were provided for all persons, and especially newspaper editors, who advocated or condoned bomb-throwing. Anarchist societies were declared illegal, and the government was empowered to dissolve them wherever found. Trial in each case was to be by court-martial, in order to secure more expeditious punishment. All these measures had little or no effect. Almost on top of them came repeated new attempts, the record of recklessness being finally topped with the assassination of Canovas in 1897 by the anarchist Augiolilio." Finally, if military instead of legislative means of preventing assassination were taken, would the case stand better? In Europe, where all the resources of the military and secret service arms were employed to this end, assassinations and wholesale murders by bomb-throwing and otherwise were far more frequent than in the United States, and President Carnot of France was murdered while surrounded by a regiment of cavalry.

Besides these objections questioning the especial value of preventive measures against anarchistic outbreaks, other objections were advanced against them, based on the traditions and political genius of the United States. The right of free speech and all that that connotes was stated to be the basis upon which the civil institutions of the country were built up; and although this right might be so thoroughly abused as directly to incite crime and force the authorities to take action, as when the anarchists Johann Most and Emma Goldman were convicted under the laws of New York, a general federal statute delimiting the bounds of writing and speech-making would operate under this great disadvantage, that in all cases not absolutely clear, and especially if partisan political feeling happened to run high at the time and was in any way involved, acrimonious accusations would certainly be brought forward of laws bent to party use and of constitutional powers exceeded. How great a political feud might be engendered thereby was shown at the time of the arrest of Vallandigham by the military authorities during the civil war. How likely such a feud would be to arise unless the government acted with great discretion in moments of extreme provocation sure to come, might be judged from the fact that after President McKinley's death a set of daily papers which had been bitterly opposed to the President's administration were somewhat roundly accused of having been almost as morally criminal in their utterances as Emma Goldman was in hers, and it was asserted that the further publication of such personal political utterances should be stopped. But if before President McKinley's death Congress had passed a law authorizing the government to interdict such publications, and they had been interdicted, political dissensions of the gravest consequence would have been sown throughout the country. Two further arguments, based upon phenomena observed in the history of anarchism in Europe, were brought forward by those opposing drastic government measures to suppress

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