GORKY, MAXIM (Alexey Maximovich Pyeshkoff), a Russian novelist, whose studies of tramp life have been for some years familiar to the readers of his own country, and whose Foma Gordyeyef was translated into English in 1901, was born at Nijni-Novogorod, March 14, 1868 (or 1869). When still a young child he was left an orphan and was apprenticed to a shoemakes. In rapid succession the boy tried the life of an engraver's assistant, of a student of religious painting, of a scullery boy, and of a gardner's assistant, and at fifteen was assistant cook on a steamboat. While there he became interested in French romance, and he left the ship to try for an education in the schools. But failing to obtain free tuition, he took to the road as a tramp, and from that time, with occasional interruptions, he lived with tramps, going on foot over nearly the whole of Russia and living by turning his energy to whatever offered. In 1893 he first attracted attention by the publication of a short story called Chelkash, the success of which was immediate. Thereafter he devoted himself to writing, and has produced altogether more than thirty stories, dealing generally with tramps and the haunts of vagabondia. Gorky writes with sympathy and great realistic detail, depending more upon character drawing than plot for his effects. His stories are far from being cheerful, and the pen-name, "Gorky," which he adopted, translating into "bitter," suggests the tone of his most characteristic work.

GOT, FRANÇOIS JULES EDMOND, French actor, died in Paris, March 20, 1901. He was born October 1, 1822, at Lignerolles, in the department of Orne, and was educated at the Lycée Charlemagne. After holding a clerkship in the government service he entered the Conservatoire in 1841, where he studied under Provost and won second and first honors in 1842 and 1843 respectively. He served a year in the army, and then (1844) made his début at the Comédie Française, of which he became a member in 1850. There he sprang into immediate fame as a comic actor. In his subsequent connection with the theatre, he enacted more than 150 rôles in the classical and modern drama. His connection with the Comédie was almost continuous until 1895, when he retired from the stage. M. Got wrote libretti for François Villon (1857), and l'Esclave (1874), and was made a knight of the Legion of Honor in 1881, being the first actor to be thus honored.

GOURKO, Count JOSEPH VASILYEVICH, Russian field-marshal, died at Tver, January 29, 1901. He was born in Lithuania, November 15, 1828. Entering the army in 1846 as cornet, he served through the Crimean War and the Polish insurrection of 1863, winning distinction in both conflicts, and in 1876 had risen to the rank of inajor-general with the command of a division. During the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78), General Gourko astonished the military experts of Europe by conducting a detachment of the army across the Balkan Mountains in the middle of winter,-a feat which had been deemed impossible,-tcok Sofia, Philippopolis, and Adrianople, and rendered signal assistance at the siege of Plevna in command of the Roumanian cavalry. In recognition of his services he was made a count, adjutant-general of the army, and in 1879, governor-general of St. Petersburg. In the following year, for not foreseeing and preventing an attack made on the life of Alexander II. he was exiled, but was recalled shortly afterward and appointed governor-general of the Polish provinces by Alexander III. in 1883. After a rigorous administration he resigned his office in 1894, and retired from public life with the rank of field-marshal. GRAMME, ZÉNOBE THEOPHILE, inventor of the armature bearing his name, died in Paris, January 20, 1901. He was born in Belgium in 1826, and after working as a carpenter became connected with the "Alliance" factory in the capacity of mechanic and was engaged in the construction of dynamos and arc lamps, at that time used only for lighthouses or experimentally. He was also employed by Ruhmkorff, the celebrated Parisian instrument maker, and gained a knowledge of the principles involved in electrical machinery. His invention of the ring armature (1870) came a few years after Wild had discovered that the current from the revolving coils can be used to excite the field magnets. The principle of the ring armature had already been invented by Pacinotti, but it had not been brought to general notice or constructed in a practical form, so that when Gramme made his independent discovery of the same device he received the credit of the invention. He constructed successful dynamos which he exhibited at the international expositions of Vienna (1873), Philadelphia (1876), and Paris (1876 and 1888), and which, by showing their practical value, did much to make electric lighting general. For his work in electrical science Gramme received many honors.

GRAPHITE. The production of graphite in the United States in 1900 amounted to 5,507,855 pounds of refined graphite, and 611 short tons of crude graphite, having a total value of $197,579. The production of 1899 was 2,900,732 pounds of refined and 2,324 short tons of crude, valued at $167,106. There was also produced in 1900, 860,750 pounds of artificial graphite. The 1900 output came from New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Rhode Island, and the great increase was due to Chester County, Pa.

In spite of the greatly increased output of the domestic mines the quantity produced was by no means sufficient to supply the demand and the imports continued to be large. In 1900 they were valued at $1,390,141, which was seven times that of the domestic product. A review of the last few years shows that in 1897 the value of the imports was four times, in 1898 ten times, and in 1899 twelve times the domestic product. Most of the imported material comes from Ceylon and Bohemia, and Canada may become an important producer in the future.

GRAS, General BASILE, French soldier and inventor, died at Auxerre, France, April 15, 1901. He was born at Saint-Amans-de-Pellega, Tarn-et-Garonne, January 2, 1836, and entered the Polytechnic School in 1854. He became first lieutenant of artillery in the army in 1858, captain in 1864, and instructor of artillery officers. In 1871 the French War Department wished to change the system of armament, and Gras submitted a model of a rifle which was adopted and used until replaced by the Lebel model in 1886. In 1882 he became inspector of arms at Paris with rank of colonel, and was made brigadier-general in 1888.

GRAY, ELISHA, American electrician and inventor, died at Newtonville, Mass., January 21, 1901. He was born at Barnesville, O., August 2, 1835, and in his early life worked at carpentry and blacksmithing. At the same time he pursued scientific studies and attended Oberlin College. His first inventions included an automatic self-adjusting relay, a private line printer, a repeater, and a telegraphic switch and annunciator for hotels, but his most important discoveries were in the development of his system of electro-harmonic telegraphy for transmitting sounds over telegraph wires. He found that a sound produced near a magnet will cause a magnet with a similar adjustment to respond to its tone. On the basis of this discovery Gray filed a caveat at the patent office in Washington, with the ultimate idea of perfecting "the art of transmitting vocal sounds telegraphically." A month later the famous patent for the Bell telephone was granted to Professors Dolbear and Bell, and gave rise to almost endless litigation and controversy between these inventors and Gray. The claims of Bell as the inventor of the telephone were subsequently upheld by the Supreme Court, and the rights of the Gray invention, which were acquired by the Western Union Telegraph Company, were not utilized by this corporation, which, in return for a monetary consideration, conceded the claims of the Bell company. Gray invented the telautograph, and at the time of his death was interested in a new system for the transmission of fog signals. Shortly before his death he published Nature's Miracles; or, Familiar Talks on Science, Vol. III., Electricity and Magnetism.

GRAY, WILLIAM C., American religious editor, died in Chicago, September 29, 1901. He was born in Butler County, O., October 17, 1830, and graduated at Belmont College in 1849. He was admitted to the bar but did not practice, and in 1851 became editor of the Miami Democrat. Two years later he established the Tiffin (Ohio) Tribune; subsequently he was connected with the Cleveland Herald, and Newark (N. J.) American, and in 1871 he took the editorship of the Interior, an organ of the Presbyterian Church.

GREAT BRITAIN. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland has an area of 120,979 square miles, and a population in 1901 (see paragraph Census) of 41,454,578, of whom 30,805,466 were in England, 1,720,609 in Wales, 4,471,957 in Scotland, and 4,456,546 in Ireland. The executive power of Great Britain is vested in the king acting under the advice of a ministry nominated by him from the political party in power in Parliament. The main officers of the present Unionist ministry, which has held power since 1895 and was reelected in 1900, are as follows: Prime Minister, Marquis of Salisbury; Lord High Chancellor, Earl of Halsbury; Lord President of Council, Duke of Devonshire; Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir Michael E. Hicks-Beach, Bart.; Secretary of State, Home Department, Charles Thomson Ritchie; Secretary of State, Foreign Department, Marquis of Lansdowne; Secretary of State, Colonial Department, Joseph Chamberlain; Secretary of State, War Department, Hon. St. John Brodrick; Secretary for Scotland, Lord Balfour of Burleigh; First Lord of the Admiralty, Earl of Selborne; First Lord of the Treasury, Arthur James Balfour; Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Earl Cadogan; President Board of Agriculture, Robert William Hanbury; Postmaster-General, Marquis of Londonderry. The Church of England is the established church, but all other sects are tolerated.

Census. By acts of Parliament approved on March 27 and April 9, 1900, the regular decénnial census of the United Kingdom was ordered to be taken on March 31, 1901, and it was further directed that the preliminary reports of this census should be completed by August 27, 1901. As stated by the Census Commissioners, these preliminary reports, though not corrected, would probably differ from the corrected reports by so slight a margin as to be entirely negligible, and the preliminary reports are therefore here presented as if final. It appears from them that the total popula

tion of the United Kingdom on March 31, 1901, was 41,454.578, an increase of 9.9 per cent. since 1891, when the population was 37,732,922. In both cases, however, this population is exclusive of the population of the islands of the British seas, and of sailors, soldiers, and merchantmen abroad. These additional categories amounted in 1891 to about 350,000, but the number was doubtless much larger in 1901, owing to the service of troops in the South African War. The following table shows the population, by decennial periods since 1821, of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, and also of the United Kingdom:

From this table it is shown that the population of the United Kingdom has doubled since 1821, and that the decennial rate of increase has been fairly constant. But if the rate of increase in each of the four countries is considered separately, it will be seen that the population of England and Wales has increased proportionately more rapidly than that of Scotland, while the population of Ireland shows a large positive decrease in every decade since 1841, when the great famine occurred, the total population amounting in 1901 to hardly more than one-half of the population sixty years previous. The following table shows by per cents. the increase in the population of the United Kingdom since 1821, and also the increase or decrease in each of the four countries, England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales:

The decrease in the population of Ireland is seen to be the smallest since 1841, amounting numerically to 248,204. This decrease was almost entirely in the rural districts, the large towns showing on the whole considerable increase. The population of Belfast, for example, increased from 273,079 to 348,965, or 27.8 per cent.; that of Dublin from 269,716 to 286,328, or 6.2 per cent.; that of Cork, from 97,281 to 99,693, or 2.5 per cent.; that of Rathmines and Rathgar from 27,796 to 32,472, or 16.8 per cent., and that of Pembroke from 23,992 to 25,524, or 6.4 per cent. Many of the smaller towns on the other hand reported a considerable loss of population. Of the total population, 74.3 per cent were returned as Roman Catholics; 13.0 per cent as Protestant Episcopalians; 10.0 per cent as Presbyterians, and 1.4 per cent as Methodists. In comparison with the numbers reported under these religions in 1891, there was a decrease among the Catholics of 6.7 per cent.; a decrease of 3.5 among Episcopalians, of 0.3 among Presbyterians, and an increase of 10.4 per cent among Methodists.

As was shown by the previous census, the urban population of England and Wales continues to increase more rapidly than the rural, the increase conforming roughly to the rule that the more populous the city, the higher the rate of growth. In the ten years ending in 1901 the proportionate increase was greatest, not among towns of from 20,000 to 100,000 inhabitants, as was the case in 1881-91, but among cities of from 100,000 to 250,000 inhabitants. By the earlier census towns of more than 250,000 inhabitants showed an increase of 9.28 per cent., but by the census of 1901 the per cent. was 12.48. At the same time towns of from 20,000 to 50,000 showed a lessening increase in population, while among the towns of less than 10,000 there was "on the average a somewhat serious decrease." All told there were in England and Wales, as shown by the census of 1901, 75 towns each containing more than 50,000 inhabitants. The largest twenty of these, their population at the census of 1891 and 1901 and their rate of increase, is as follows:

The areas of these towns were extended in the decennial 1891-1901, but in every case the popula tion given for 1891 relates to the population of the town as it would have been if constituted as in 1901.

With the exception of the figures returned for Ireland, the report of the census was in general satisfactory. For the total population, at least of England and Wales was larger by over 150,000 than had been estimated on the basis of previous decennial increases, and besides this a considerable increase should be allowed over the census figures on account of the troops in South Africa. In general then, the returns showed that the country had not yet reached the "saturation point" as to population, and this alone gave satisfaction in view of the many discussions that had appeared of recent years in the English press as to the increases in wealth and population which could be expected alone of countries of immense area such as the United States and Russia. While again the census returns show that there has been an influx of population to the towns, the figures show also that this tendency has not been so marked as was believed. "Few even of the purely agricultural counties have actually declined. Bedfordshire, Berks, Bucks, Dorset, Somerset, Wilts, and Worcestershire show increases, some of them considerable." Taken broadly, few large areas of the country show any considerable decline in population; the total increase of the country being on the whole uniformly distributed. "Active progress of population has been restricted to little more than four millions of acres out of thirty-seven, and in a measure the face of the country is little changed." It should be noted, however, that one of the most pronounced tendencies shown by the census is the increase of suburban districts. Around many large towns a sort of suburban or semi-rural ring has been formed, whose people are dependent upon the town and yet apart from it. This tendency is shown in the marked growth of several counties. "That of Essex has risen from 578,471 to 816,524; Kent, a little less favored, shows an increase from 807,328 to 936,003; Middlesex which had in 1891 a population of 542,894, returned 792,225; and Surrey shows a rise from 409,115 to 519,522." As shown by the census, the increase in population resulted not from an especially high birth-rate but from a rather low birth-rate, and also a low death-rate. From this fact various deductions were made reaching very different conclusions. The returns of the census in Ireland, while not surprising, were nevertheless distinctly disappointing. While it was well enough to say that the decennial decrease there was the smallest for fifty years, it nevertheless remained true that the more a population in the country had declined, the less it could afford to decline.

Finance. The revenue for the year ending March 31, 1900, excluding the local taxation accounts, amounted to £119,000,840. The ordinary expenditure amounted to £110,505,000, and the expenditure including war charges aggregated £133,722,000, leaving a deficit for the year of £13,882,000. For the year ending March 31, 1901, the revenue was £130,385,000. The ordinary expenditure for that year amounted to £114,972,000, leaving a surplus of £15,413,000. But the total war charges for the year were £68,620,000, leaving a net deficit of £53,207,000, which was met by the issuing of loans. For the fiscal year ending March, 1902, the total estimates of expenditure were placed by the chancellor of the exchequer at £184,212,000, providing that payments on the sinking fund amounting to £4.640,000 were suspended. The total estimates of ordinary revenue were placed at £132,255,000, or together with other duties which it was proposed to levy, at £143,255,000, thus leaving a deficit of £40,957,000. To supply this deficit, Parliament authorized the issue of loans up to £60,000,000. The total cost of the wars in South Africa and China for the years 1899-1902 were estimated by the chancellor to be £153,317,000. Of this amount, £142,807,000 was for operations in South Africa, £5.660,000 was for operations in China, and £4,850,000 represented interest on the war debt. Of this total amount. £45,271,000 had been or would be provided for by previous surplus, suspension of

the sinking fund, and additional taxation, while loans would aggregate £108,046,000. (See paragraph Customs and Excise Law.)

The National Debt.-On March 31, 1901, the total gross liabilities of Great Britain amounted to £705,723,878, divided as follows: Funded debt, or debt which the government is not obliged to pay within any fixed period, £551,182,153; unfunded debt, representing money borrowed on short time, £67,000,000; terminable annuities, being the present cash value of debt in process of extinction through the payment of annuities, £61,677,469; other capital liabilities, £14,731,256. But from the sum total as thus made up, must be deducted assets amounting to £32,115,676, of which the main items are: Bank balances, £5,596,918, and Suez Canal shares, £25,806,000, leaving the net total debt at £673,608,200. The debt of Great Britain is of long standing, the first loan having been made by Charles II., though this was partially repudiated. The debt was never large, however, until the American Revolutionary War, which cost £121,000,000, and made the debt nearly £250,000,000. This was reduced somewhat up to 1793, when the Napoleonic wars added £600,000,000, and left the total debt in 1816 over £900,000,000. Since then a regular system of repayments has been adopted, and the debt has not been allowed to rise to its former size. During the reign of Queen Victoria, and up to March 31, 1899, the debt was reduced in the sum of £153,000,000; but this amount was almost precisely the cost-£153,317,000 of the South African War and the army operations in China for the three years ending March 31, 1902. Of this cost, £45,271,000 was charged to current revenue, and £108,046,000 raised by loans, neutralizing over two-thirds of all the payments made on the national debt since 1837.

Army. The total army budget for the last four years has been as follows: For the year ending March 31, 1899, £19,220,500, of which £16,139,800 was for the effective service; for the year 1900, £20,617,200, of which £17,553,000 was for the effective service; for the year 1901, £61,499,400, of which £58,323,400 was for the effective service, and for the year ending March 31, 1902, £87,915,000, of which £83,970,500 was for the effective service.

The following figures show the normal distribution of all ranks of the actual effective service: In Great Britain, 154,333; in Egypt, 5,312; in the Colonies, 43,709, excluding 14,435 native and Colonial troops; and 73,518 in India. (See paragraph Army Reorganization).

Navy. The total naval estimates of Great Britain for the last four years have been as follows: For the year ending March 31, 1899 (effective service, £21,549,800, non-effective, £2,228,600), £23,778,400; for the year 1900 (effective service, £24,302,000, non-effective, £2,292,500), £26,594,500; for the year 1901 (effective service, £26,476,800, non-effective, £2,315,400), £28,791.900; and for the year ending March 31, 1902 (effective service, £28,603,900, non-effective, £2,271,600), £30,875,500. This steady increase in the naval appropriations was stated by Mr. Arnold Foster, Secretary of the Admiralty, to be necessary in order to maintain the superiority of England's naval force over that of any two foreign powers. There had, the secretary stated, been deplorable delay in the building of ships ordered, but after inquiry it was found that other countries had suffered practically the same delay. It was questioned in the House by the opposition whether the statement still held good that the English naval force was superior to that of any other two countries. France, it was asserted, had 40 battleships completed, or nearly completed, while Russia and Germany had 29 each, and Great Britain had only 66, thus giving to France when combined with Russia or Germany a superiority over Great Britain of three battleships. The secretary, however, declined to change the year's programme for the construction of new vessels, and it was adopted by the House as presented. This programme called for three battleships, six armored cruisers, two third-class cruisers, ten torpedo boat destroyers, five torpedo boats, two sloops and five submarine boats. The personnel of the navy under the new estimates was to consist of a total of 118,635, being an increase of 3,745 over the previous year. With regard to the efficiency of the navy, the secretary stated that there had been struck off from the list of socalled effective ships sixteen vessels, but there still remained on the list a number of ships armed or partially armed with muzzle-loading guns, and that these must remain there until replaced. An excited discussion as to the efficiency of the navy arose from a statement of the Navy League on June 26, 1901, reiterating their statement of October 20, 1900, and showing that (1) the naval programme of late years had been insufficient for England's safety, that (2) these insufficient programmes had been only partially carried out, and that (3) the relative naval strength of Great Britain was being steadily diminished by increase in the naval construction of other nations. "No more dramatic contrast exists," said the League, "than that presented by the actual conditions of the main fighting fleet of Britain and the belief held by the public at large as to their sufficiency and efficiency." "In the Mediterranean, where the battle for empire will probably be fought out," there is a deficiency in all classes of vessels, and a complete absence of fleet auxiliaries of all kinds. So far as the