trains doing an interstate commerce business were not under the jurisdiction of State authorities.

State Officers.-Holding office in 1901 and through 1902: Governor, Jefferson Davis, Democrat, elected for 2 years, term expires in January, 1903; secretary of state, John W. Crockett; auditor, T. C. Monroe; treasurer, Thomas E. Little; attorneygeneral, George W. Murphy; superintendent of education, J. J. Doyne; commissioner of agriculture, Frank Hill; commissioner of public lands, John W. Colquitt. Supreme Court-Chief justice, Henry G. Bunn; associate justices, Burrill B. Battle, Simon P. Hughes, Carroll D. Wood, and James E. Riddick, all Republicans. Congressional Representatives (57th Congress).-In the House: P. D. McCulloch, Jr., from Marianna; John S. Little, from Greenwood; Thomas C. McRae, from Prescott; Charles C. Reid, from Morrollton; Hugh A. Dinsmore, from Fayetteville, and S. Brundidge, Jr., from Searcy, all Democrats. In the Senate: James K. Jones (until 1903), from Washington, and James Berry (until 1907), from Bentonville, both Democrats.

ARMENIA and Kurdistan, Turkish territory in eastern Asia Minor, comprising the three vilayets of Erzerum, Mamuret-ul-Aziz (Kharput), and Diarbekir, and the districts of Bitlis and Van, have an estimated area of 72,491 square miles and a population variously estimated at from 2,500,000 to 5,000,000. The Armenians are Gregorian Christians, who, though retaining their own ritual, acknowledge the authority of the Pope of Rome. The persecutions which reached their climax in the atrocities of 1894 and 1895 have since continued, despite the Porte's promises of reform. From Moslem Kurds and even Turkish troops the country has suffered fire, pillage, massacre, and the outrage of its women, but no one of the Powers has intervened. Throughout July and August, 1901, desultory Kurdish outrages harassed the Bitlis district. In September conditions appeared to be most serious; the situation at Sassun was critical, and from Mush there came shocking reports of bloodshed, pillage, and fire. In that month the disturbances at Mush were quelled by the governor of Bitlis, commanding four battalions of troops. Many subsequent outrages, however, were reported, but no Turk or Kurd, it was stated in October, had been arrested since July. The authorities seemed to place all the blame on the Armenians and punished them accordingly. It was reported in November that fighting had taken place between Turkish troops and Armenians at Sassun, and in Deceniber that while quiet prevailed at Kharput outrages in the districts of Erzerum, Van, Diarbekir, and Bitlis were being continued by Hamidieh Kurds, against whom the authorities were either powerless or unwilling to act. In November, 1901, severe earthquake shocks destroyed a large part of the town of Erzerum, including the Armenian church and the Greek schools, and over a score of persons were killed.

ARMIES. See articles on the various countries.

ARMOUR, HERMAN O., American capitalist, died at Saratoga, N. Y., September 8, 1901. He was born at Stockbridge, N. Y., March 7, 1837, the brother of P. D. Armour (q.v.), and went into the grain commission business in Chicago in 1862. In 1875 he joined the firm of Plankington, Armour and Co., and later became the New York representative of Armour and Co. At the time of his death he was a vice-president and director of the company.

ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH, American capitalist and philanthropist, died in Chicago, January 6, 1901. He was born on a farm at Stockbridge, N. Y., May 16, 1832, and received a common-chool education. In 1852, being seized with the then raging gold-fever, he traveled overland to California, most of the distance on foot. In four years he returned East with sufficient capital to establish himself in trade, which he did at Milwaukee, in the grain and warehouse business. Successful in this, he became in 1863 leading member of Armour, Plankington and Co., pork packers, with headquarters in the same city and branches in others. In 1875 the main office was transferred to Chicago and the business absorbed that of Hermar O. Armour (q.v.), dealer in grain and pork. Thereafter the ramifications of the business caused a reorganization. Armour and Co. was formed, Herman was sent to New York to manage the exports and two other brothers sent to Kansas City, Simeon at the head of the branch there, and Arthur as president of the Armour Bank, while Philip remained in Chicago as executive head of the system. The operations of the company increased rapidly, until now it owns more grain elevators than any house in the world, employs 50.000 persons, exports to every civilized country, while its transactions for a single year have exceeded $102,000,000. This extraordinary success was due to the shrewdness and business sagacity of Mr. Armour, who, aside from revolutionizing the pork-packing industry, displayed a daring initiative and keenness of judgment in his market transactions that, more than merely increasing his own capital, overawed his competitors, secured unlimited credit for the house, and more than once averted serious financial distress. Out of his vast personal fortune he gave wisely and generously to works of prac

tical charity. The chief beneficiaries of his liberality are the Armour Institute of Technology and the Armour Mission, both of Chicago, representing a combined endowment of $2,500,000. Of his two sons, J. Ogden, the only surviving one, succeeded to the control of the allied Armour interests.

ARRAN, Fifth Earl of, ARTHUR SAUNDERS WILLIAM CHARLES FOX GORE, British peer, died in London, March 14, 1901. He was born January 6, 1839, and after being educated at Eton, entered the diplomatic service in 1859. He was an attaché successively at Hanover, Stuttgart, Lisbon, Vienna, and Paris, and resigned in 1864, after which, until 1884, he was a special income tax commissioner, and from 1888 until his death, lord-lieutenant of County Mayo, Ireland. In 1884 he succeeded his father as earl and in the same year was created a baron of the United Kingdom, entering the House of Lords as Baron Sudley.

ARROYO, OSCAR, American politician, died at New Orleans, La., November 3, 1901. He was born in Louisiana in 1823, a descendant of the original Spanish settlers from the Canary Islands. As provost-marshal of Plaquemines he was driven to Shreveport when the Union army captured New Orleans during the Civil War, and then became secretary to Governor and Confederate General Allen. At various times he served as clerk of the State Senate (1877), as secretary of state (1884), as special commissioner of Louisiana to investigate Civil War claims (1892), and as cashier of the United States mint at New Orleans.

ART STUDENTS' LEAGUE of New York, was founded in 1875 for the purpose of organizing and conducting classes in painting, drawing, modeling and composition. The home of the club is at 215 West Fifty-seventh Street, New York City. Membership, 423; number of students, 960. Advisory director, John La Farge; president, C. Y. Turner; secretary, Mary S. Lloyd.

ASBESTOS. The production of asbestos in 1900 was 1,054 short tons, valued at $16,310, as compared with 1899, whose production was 681 short tons, valued at $11,740 dollars. The imports' in 1900 were valued at $355,951, while those of 1899 were only $312,068. Canada alone produced 30,641 short tons in 1900, the value of which was $763,431. There has been developed recently a new deposit of asbestos on Belvedere Mountain, in Lowell and Lamoille townships, Vermont. The discovery and opening up of these deposits, which will no doubt produce important quantities in 1902, is of great importance, and although they may only supply second and third grades of asbestos at first, still indications point to the presence of large quantities of the mineral. At present nearly all the asbestos used in this country is obtained from deposits at Black Lake, and Thetford, Canada.

ASCENSION, an isolated island 700 miles northwest of St. Helena, is a British possession having an area of only 35 square miles, and a population of 430, consisting of officers, seamen, marines, and their families, and 177 Kroomen. It is a coaling and store depot for the British West African squadron. In April, 1901, a direct cable was laid between the island and Sierra Leone, on the African coast. ASHANTI. See GOLD COAST.

ASHLEY, WILIAM JAMES, economic historian and teacher, was chosen in 1901 to organize and conduct the projected school of commerce at the University of Birmingham. He was born in London, February 25, 1860, and was educated at St. Olave's Grammar School, Southwark; at Balliol College, Oxford, where he was a history scholar; and at Lincoln College, where he held a fellowship and a lectureship in 1885-88. From 1888 to 1892 he was professor of political economy and constitutional history at Toronto University, and then was called to Harvard University to become professor of economic history, a chair which he occupied until selected to organize the new faculty at Birmingham. Among his many publications on economic subjects are Introduction to English Economic History and Theory; The Middle Ages (1888); The End of the Middle Ages (1893); and Surveys Historic and Economic (1900). He was also editor of the Economic Classics, translating for the series Schmoller's Mercantile System (1896) and Turgot's Reflections (1898).

ASIA. For map see PERSIA.

ASIA MINOR. See ARCHEOLOGY (paragraph Asia Minor) and TURKEY. ASPHALTUM. Under asphaltum are included the purer forms of the hard and soft bitumen known as elaterite, gilsonite, albertite, wurzilite, uintaite, nigrite, maltha, brea, etc. Where the material is found forming impregnations in the porous rock it is known as bituminous rock. The production of asphaltum and bituminous rock in 1900 amounted to 54,389 short tons, valued at $415,958, as compared with the production of 75,085 short tons, valued at $553,904, in 1899. This quantity was supplied by the States of California, Kentucky, Utah, Texas, and Colorado. A large quantity of asphaltum and bituminous rock was also imported, most of the foreign supply coming from Trinidad and Bermudez, in Venezuela,

while smaller quantities came from Switzerland, France, Germany, Cuba, and Mexico. The value of the domestic production of 1900 was 9 per cent. less than the imports, which amounted to 118,771 long tons, valued at $454,732. The imports from Trinidad increased nearly 36 per cent. between 1899 and 1900, and the amount imported from Venezuela was nearly three times that imported during 1899. G. H. Eldridge has prepared a valuable paper on the asphalt and bituminous rock deposits of the United States, in which he describes the distribution of the several varieties. The purer forms occur in the form of veins, of which he mentions a remarkable example found in Utah near the Colorado line, which has a maximum width of 18 feet and a continuous length of ten miles. Some of the bituminous rock deposits are very large, one being mentioned in Indian Territory which forms a bed 350 feet thick, impregnated from top to bottom and traceable for over two miles. The percentage of bitumen in the rocks shows a maximum of 14 per cent. in the case of the limestones and 20 per cent. in the case of sandstones. H. E. Peckham has written a paper On the Bituminous Deposits Situated to the South and East of Cardenas, Cuba, American Journal of Science, July, 1901.

ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY, M.P., a prominent Liberal leader, in a speech at a Liberal dinner, replying to addresses delivered at a great pro-Boer mass meeting in London, on June 20, 1901, committed himself and his branch of the party to a firm support of the cause of Great Britain in the war against the Boers in South Africa. It was Mr. Asquith's contention that the Liberals were not of necessity supporters of the Boers, and he claimed the right to hold whatever opinion suited him in regard to this question, without being accused of party disloyalty. Mr. Asquith was born in Yorkshire in 1852 and was educated at the City of London School and Balliol College, Oxford. After engaging in law practice for some years, he entered Parliament (1886). His career was brilliant, and he rose to the position of home secretary under Gladstone in 1892, but left the ministry upon the defeat of the Rosebery cabinet in 1895. He is a member of the House of Commons, sitting for East Fife.

ASSEMBLY, GENERAL. See PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN the United States OF AMERICA (NORTH) and PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES (SOUTH). ASSOCIATE REFORMED SYNOD OF THE SOUTH, organized in 1821, a member of the alliance of Reformed churches holding the Presbyterian system, and the only independent division of Associate Reformed Presbyterians. According to the last reports available it has 11,344 communicants and 8,367 Sabbath school teachers and scholars, with over a hundred ministers and churches. The next meeting of the synod is in November, 1902. Stated clerk, Rev. James Boyce, Due West, S. C.

ASSOCIATED PRESS, an organization having for its object the collection and sale of news to its members among the press of the country, was first incorporated in Michigan, later in Illinois, and later still, as the outcome of a suit with the Inter-Ocean Publishing Co., of Chicago, reincorporated (1900) under the laws of the State of New York. At the annual meeting held in New York City, September 18, 1901, the following directors were elected, viz.: F. B. Noyes, Washington Star; C. W. Knapp, St. Louis Republic; V. F. Lawson, Chicago Record; Stephen O'Meara, Boston Journal; A. J. Barr, Pittsburg Post; H. W. Scott, Portland Oregonian; George Thomson, St. Paul Despatch; W. L. McLean, Philadelphia Evening Bulletin; Clark Howell, Atlanta Constitution; H. Ridder, New York Staats-Zeitung; T. G. Rapier, New Orleans Picayune; C. P. Taft, Cincinnati Times-Star; C. H. Grasty, Baltimore Evening News; Whitelaw Reid, New York Tribune: M. H. De Young, San Francisco Chronicle. The directors subsequently elected F. B. Noyes president and Melville E. Stone secretary and general manager. ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. See PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL. ASSOCIATIONS BILL. See FRANCE (paragraphs on History).

ASTRONOMICAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1901. The two most interesting events of the year were the blazing forth of a new and brilliant star, and the discovery of a minor planet pursuing a specially remarkable orbit. In the following pages we have described these occurrences briefly, and have also called attention to advances made in other departments of astronomical science. New Star in the Constellation Perseus.-Perhaps the most striking thing in 1901 was the sudden appearance of this very bright object, at a point in the sky where no star had been known to exist before. Such a phenomenon is of great importance to the advance of astronomical science, and also of high interest to the general public. It is as if a new world had come into existence suddenly before our eyes. On the morning of February 22, not very long before twilight, Anderson, of Edinburgh, first saw this star, and estimated it as being between the second and third magnitudes. Daylight soon intervened, and it was not seen again until early even

ing twilight made it possible to attempt further observations. At seven o'clock Copeland, of the Edinburgh observatory, saw it as a white star; and it was then almost of the first magnitude. Owing to difference in time, it was not possible to observe the star in the United States until a few hours later, since darkness always sets in on the European side of the Atlantic while it is still early afternoon in America. When it was observed at Harvard College on the evening of the 22nd it was described as a white star and its magnitude was estimated to be 0.9. This fractional designation of magnitude signifies that the observers thought it more brilliant than an average star of the first magnitude; for it must not be supposed that all the so-called first magnitude stars are really equal in brilliancy. Probably no two stars in the sky are exactly alike; and astronomers have adopted as the standard first magnitude a brilliancy near the average of the so-called first magnitude stars. Thus, stars like Sirius, that are more brilliant than the average first magnitude, are designated by fractional or even negative numbers; so that the magnitude assigned by the Harvard College observers to the new star simply indicates that they considered it somewhat brighter than the standard first magnitude. Even more remarkable fluctuations of light soon followed; for later in the same evening the magnitude was estimated as 0.35; and after the lapse of twentyfour hours, on the night of the 23rd, the new star culminated by blazing up to a brilliancy almost equaling the brightest star in the heavens. Its light-giving power could be estimated only approximately, and was set down as 0.0. One night later, on the 24th, observers all agreed that the object had already lost some of its extraordinary splendor. In thus blazing up within a few hours from absolute invisibility to such an extraordinary degree of luminosity the Perseus Nova has but one or two parallels in the written annals of astronomy. We have on record but fourteen cases of these so-called temporary stars or Nova. They always appear suddenly, reach their greatest power within a few days, and then fade out again more slowly, in a period of time measurable by months. The first authenticated instance occurred in the year 134 B. C.; and this was the star which led Hipparchus to construct the first stellar catalogue ever made. Hipparchus saw the importance of the event which had come under his observation, and recognized that similar occurrences could be detected easily in the future, if an accurate record were made of the stars then actually visible in the sky.

The star most nearly resembling the one of this year appeared in November, 1572, in the constellation Cassiopeia. This nova first attracted the attention of Tycho Brahe to astronomical studies, and may be regarded as the primary cause of the advances our science owes to the labors of that remarkable man. Tycho was able to observe his star for sixteen months; and it is recorded that when brightest it rivaled even the planet Venus at her best. The position of the star was measured with respect to a number of neighboring ones by Tycho; so that we know, at least approximately, the exact point of the sky where it appeared. His results were published in 1573.

The further light changes of the star of 1901, as we have already mentioned, began with the decline first observed on the 24th of February. This decline continued; and by the latter part of March the nova was no longer a conspicuous object, though it continued to be visible in the telescope. Several times it was noted that the light fluctuated; its steady diminution seemed to be interrupted for a few days by slight increase in brilliancy.

Astronomers have given much attention to possible explanations of the phenomena of temporary stars. In the case of the present object we have been able to add considerably to our stock of observational material by noting the changes made visible by the spectroscope. Probably the most reasonable theory to account for the whole phenomenon is the so-called "Collision Theory." If a massive dark body, moving very rapidly through space, were to come into collision with some other similar body, the force of impact would undoubtedly evolve an enormous quantity of heat. This would raise the temperature of the two bodies until the matter composing them would be melted and later perhaps even vaporized wholly or in part. Such an evolution of heat would naturally be accompanied also with the production of light; in other words, we should be able to see something where previously there had been but one or more dark bodies. It is possible that space contains regions of considerable extent filled with some sort of cosmic matter, possibly very attenuated, possibly varying in density in different parts. The phenomenon of a new star could be well explained on the supposition of a compact dark mass moving very rapidly through some such region as this. We have not space to enter here into the rather intricate details of spectroscopic observations, which offer the greatest difficulties to theorists; but nearly all the facts that have become known might be due to a collision of the kind just mentioned.

Later in 1901 the new star began to show certain extraordinary changes that will probably render it absolutely unique in the class to which it belongs. In the latter

part of August the nova appeared to be surrounded with a species of nebulosity,— as if the materials composing the star were widening out. These appearances were especially well shown in photographs. Some astronomers were of opinion at the time that they were not caused by real nebular matter surrounding the nova, but that there was some peculiarity in the kind of light emanating from it which might be made to account for the observations. For instance, it might happen that the light of the nova was such that a photographic telescope accurately focused for the kind of light received from ordinary stars would be out of focus for the kind of light from the new star. In other words, to make a good photograph of the nova it might be necessary to alter somewhat from their ordinary positions the screws by which the photographic plate is adjusted to the focal plane of the telescope. Of course, if the photographs were made out of focus one would expect a sort of halo surrounding the star's image on the plate. But these notions were soon overcome by further experiment and observation; and it is now practically certain that the nova has actually put out a nebula. It is not possible to emphasize too strongly the interest and importance of this observation. The unfolding thus of successive early steps in a cosmic evolutionary development actually under the very eyes of the observer is an opportunity never before offered to astronomical science.

The observations thus far described are not all; at the present time of writing it is not possible to foretell just what developments will take place. But certain observations made at the very end of the year, at the Lick Observatory in California, foreshadow developments even more startling than those described. On November II telegraphic information was sent out to astronomers that Perrine, of the Lick Observatory, had photographed the nova, and found that the nebula surrounding it had at least four condensations, or nuclei, and that these were in motion towards the southeast. On the 12th it was announced from the Yerkes Observatory that Ritchey had been able to confirm these motions of the nebular matter from a photograph taken November 9. The motion was such as to amount to one minute of arc in six weeks; and this velocity is very many times larger than the thwart motion across the sky of any other object in the sidereal heavens. To what vast linear translation such an apparent motion may correspond it is impossible to say. If we knew the distance separating us from the nova we could calculate how many miles per second it must move to produce an apparent displacement of one minute of arc in six weeks. If the observed motion really exists, the material composing these nuclei is changing its position in space at least as rapidly as 1,500 miles in a single second of time. It is possible, of course, that these last phenomena, more astonishing perhaps than any others connected with the new star, may be due to some form of error in the photographs, or to some optical cause, and not to really existing motions. The decision must be left to future observation; but so much is certain: the year 1901 saw one of those really great cosmic catastrophes such as require the birth or destruction of a universe to make them possible.

Total Solar Eclipse.-A total eclipse of the sun occurred on May 18, 1901, and, as usual, a number of scientific expeditions were sent out to observe it. These eclipses are never visible from more than a very small portion of the earth's surface; and not infrequently it so chances that this small portion is situated in some far-distant and inaccessible part of the earth. On the present occasion the most favorable observing stations were on the island of Sumatra, and on certain other adjacent islands. Several parties therefore went to Sumatra, proceeding from America, England, Holland, etc. It was also possible to see the eclipse from Mauritius; and an English astronomer was located there as well, since it is always desirable to view these astronomical phenomena from widely separated stations, whenever possible. We have not space to do more than enumerate very briefly the most important results obtained. The weather at Sumatra was quite unfavorable; but the clouds, though interfering very much with the projected photographic observations, were not sufficiently continuous or dense to cause a total failure. Pictures of the corona were obtained showing very clearly the form and shape of that outermost appendage of the sun. The corona was of the type that usually appears at eclipses occurring near periods of sun-spot minimum. It would, indeed, appear that there is some connection between the sun-spots and the corona, for it has been ascertained that the frequency of these spots in any year increases and diminishes with a welldefined periodicity. Furthermore, from the few eclipses so far observed, we find that the type of corona has a similar kind of variation. The present eclipse was no exception to this highly probable rule.

The "flash" spectrum was successfully photographed once more. This is one of the most interesting observations possible at a total solar eclipse. As the eclipse progresses, and the moon's advancing edge gradually covers the sun more and more, just before complete totality, there are a few moments when we receive light exclusively from the very outermost layer of the sun's disc. The spectrum of this light