In May, General Botha requested of the British authorities and obtained permission to communicate by cable with President Kruger as to the advisability of prolonging operations. In June, before an answer was received, a conference took place in which Botha, De Wet, Delarey, President Steyn, and vice-President Schalkburger, representing the so-called Transvaal government, participated. It was decided after long consideration, to continue hostilities until independence had been secured. On July 5, there came a reply from Kruger, in brief and Biblical phraseology, commanding them to keep on fighting.

The Concentration Camps.-The guerrilla method of campaign followed by the Boers had led, as has already been indicated, to a radical change in the system of warfare carried on by the British, the substitution, namely, of lightly equipped, flying columns for the systematic advances of heavy masses of troops. The plan had proven successful in that it put the British on terms of greater equality with the Boers. A second expedient on the part of the British authorities was the establishing of concentration camps, located at a number of points in Cape Colony, the Orange River Colony, and the Transvaal. The inhabitants of the camps comprised various elements. There were, in the first place, those who had come there voluntarily, in order to find protection. The people of this class were referred to by the British press and its sympathizers as the "loyalist element," and were most frequently styled "refugees." As a rule they brought their personal effects with them and were entirely self-supporting. A second class comprised those who had likewise sought protection under the British flag, but who, on account of needy circumstances, were dependent upon the bounty of the government. The third and largest class was made up of women and small children whose husbands and fathers were in the field against Great Britain. These were brought in for military reasons, the argument being that as long as they were permitted to remain in their homes, they rendered effective aid to the enemy by affording them shelter in case of attack, and by supplying them with food and ammunition, and information concerning the movements of the British forces. The system of concentration camps was first brought to the general attention of the British public by Miss Emily Hobhouse, who early in the year had gone as a representative of a London committee to investigate conditions in the South African camps. With the permission of Lord Kitchener, and under the guidance of British officials, Miss Hobhouse inspected a number of camps, and upon her return to England, published the result of her observations. Her report, though showing no especial bias against the British authorities, revealed what was admitted on all hands to be a fearful state of affairs. Miss Hobhouse dwelt, to some extent, upon various evils which may be regarded as inevitable under conditions where thousands of people, under the stress of military necessity, were herded together in places entirely unfitted for such purposes; but the most prominent feature in her account, the one which seems to have impressed her most, and which certainly did move the feelings of the public most, was the sufferings of the children in the concentration camps and of the awful mortality which prevailed among them. There were not wanting almost immediate responses to the statement of Miss Hobhouse, in which the necessity of the system of concentration camps was pointed out, and the spirit and efficiency of the British authorities were defended. Objections were taken to many of her assertions, but no attempt was made to disprove the truth of her statements concerning the ravages of disease and death among the infant population of the camps, which, in fact, were confirmed by the official figures, issued from month to month from the war office. These figures, dry in themselves, depict clearly enough the true state of affairs. In June, 1901, the white inhabitants of the concentration camps in Cape Colony, Natal, the Orange River Colony, and the Transvaal numbered 14,624 men, 17,711 women, and 43,075 children; the number of natives, at the same time, was 2,327 men, 8,115 women, and 13,057 children, giving a total of 91,909. The proportion of race and age continued fairly uniform through the year, but the total number of inmates increased rapidly from June to October. In July, the figures stood at 118,407; in August, they rose to 137,619, and in September the nuinber was 147,467. According to Miss Hobhouse's statement, the rate of mortality among the children in the camps averaged as high as 117 per thousand. The official figures in June, which showed 1,353 deaths among 66,504 children, indicated a rate of about 240 per thousand. In August the number of deaths was 2,345, or nearly 400 per thousand. In September the deaths were 2,712, with a maximum death rate of 433 per thousand.

Since it was impossible to deny the truth of these figures, or to escape the obvious deduction from them, the supporters of the British policy in South Africa resorted to palliation rather than to denial. The sufferings of the loyalist refugees were balanced against those of the Boer women and children, and even for the latter, it was pointed out, the camps contained lesser evils than would result from the only alternative left to the British authorities-an alternative to which recourse had been had during the year-the burning of the Boer farms. Considering the fact that cer

tain starvation would have come upon the wives and the children of the Boers if left to themselves with all their means of subsistence gone, it was rather an act of mercy on the part of the British government to bring them where they might be sure of shelter and food. With respect to the high rate of mortality prevailing in the camps, and especially among the children, the argument was that the fault lay for the most part with the Boers themselves, to whose unclean habits, harmless enough in the dry air and vast free spaces of the veldt, but inevitably injurious where people were brought together within narrow limits, the ravages of disease were due in the largest measure. Numerous cases were cited of Boer women who refused, with stupid obstinacy, to follow the directions of the physicians and nurses in the care of their children, and instances were not wanting of babies in great need of careful treatment being fed by their mothers on a diet of cow's dung strained in water, a very common remedy among the Boer women, partaking almost of the character of a universal panacea. In addition, severe epidemics of measles had broken out among the children, and had spread in spite of the efforts of the physicians and trained nurses in attendance.

Such in general were the answers advanced in partial extenuation of the state of affairs as described by Miss Hobhouse. To prove that in many other cases conditions had been greatly exaggerated, committees of women were formed all over South Africa for the purpose of inspecting the camps, and their reports as published in the British press tended to indicate that the system had its good features as well as its bad. Committees, for instance, visited the camps at Fort Elizabeth and Queenstown in Cape Colony, at Bloemfontein and Heilbronn in the Orange River Colony, and at Kimberley, across the border in Bechuanaland. The inhabitants, the reports showed, were supplied with one-half pound of meat and flour per day, special dairies being established for the children. The refugees were mostly lodged in tents or marquees, except at Bloemfontein, where iron structures were put up for their accommodation. Those who had money could buy a number of conveniences or even luxuries, and all the inmates of the camp were at liberty to visit the neighboring towns as often as they pleased.

To the anti-British press in Europe, which found in Lord Kitchener's proclamation an excuse for indulging in bitter tirades against Great Britain, the discussion aroused by the concentration camps afforded a still more favorable opportunity for vituperative criticism. The most influential organs on the Continent seemed to be carried away in a surge of popular hatred for Great Britain and its policy in South Africa. The Deutsche Zeitung, the Kreuz Zeitung, the Vienna Vaterland and LokalAnzeiger and the Russian Novoye Vremya indulged in many editorials concerning British barbarities, and published harrowing reports of the outrages committed by the British soldiers on Boer prisoners and Boer women. This attack met with a vehement response in Great Britain, where it was pointed out with much force and feeling, not only by the newspapers, but by so eminent a statesman as Mr. Chamberlain, that the very nations which were so forward in denouncing British tyranny in South Africa had been guilty of far more reprehensible conduct, as was the case with Austria in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and with Russia in Poland. A writer in the London Times, under the heading of "Barbarity in 1901 versus Barbarity in 1870," depicted the methods pursued by the Germans during the Franco-Prussian war, and showed that many of the measures then adopted to secure the pacification of a conquered country exceeded in severity anything ever attempted by Great Britain in South Africa.

Military Operations to the End of the Year. From August to the latter part of December collisions between the Boers and the British, ranging in importance from midnight attacks on isolated military posts to hard fought battles between considerable forces of men, occurred over the entire field of operations in South Africa. A number of General French's scouts were taken on August 16 in Cape Colony, while ten days later at Koorkopje, on the road from Kimberley to Griqualand, a British convoy was cut up with a loss of nine men killed and twenty-four wounded. In the western Transvaal, early in September, a running fight lasting two days took place between Delarey and Methuen, in the Great Maries valley, and the British lost twenty-five dead and thirty wounded. A serious reverse, too, was that of September 17, when General Botha, at Scheepers Nek, near the Natal border, ambushed three companies of mounted infantry under Major Gough, inflicting a loss of seven officers and thirty-nine men, and capturing 155 men and two guns. Three days later another company of mounted infantry fell into the hands of the Boers at Vlakfontein; but, as an offset, a concerted Boer movement upon the Natal frontier, which seemed to look to the invasion of that colony, failed entirely, and the forces of Botha were repulsed at Forts Itala and Prospect, on September 27. Botha's army was dispersed and the general himself sought refuge in the forest of Pongola. On September 29, Delarey attacked Colonel Kekewich's camp at Moedwill. The British lost 161 men in killed, wounded and missing, but drove the Boers back.

British suc

cesses in the latter part of September and the first part of October were the capture of two Boer commandos near Adenburg, and the taking of Commandant Scheeper, together with eighteen other leaders, who were permanently banished from Africa. In Cape Colony there was great unrest during October. Many burghers joined the Boer forces, and on October 17 a commando of 500 men reached the sea at a point sixty miles northwest of Cape Town. At the latter place there was considerable alarm and the town guard was called out for active service. A week previously martial law had been established over the entire colony. At the end of October, the three main Boer bodies were those commanded by Botha, in the eastern Transvaal, by Delarey and Kemp, in the Magaliesburg district, and by Steyn and De Wet near Bethlehem, in the Orange River Colony. The severest engagement of the year was fought from October 29 to November 1, between the forces of General Botha and Colonel Benson, at Brakenlaagte. The British loss amounted to sixty-one killed and 173 wounded; while the Boer casualties stood at forty-four killed and about 100 wounded. At the same date there was a battle going on between Kemp and the British at Zeerust, which resulted in a loss for the Boers of about forty killed and double that number for the British. During November and December the fighting became once more straggling in character. The capture by the British of 250 Boers on December 5, and of 131 Boers on December 11, showed that the so-called campaign of attrition was still continuing. All through November and well into December, the Boers were fairly active in Cape Colony and north of the Orange River. The railroad between Cape Colony and Kimberley was crossed and recrossed repeatedly by commandos and desultory skirmishes took place at Barkly East, Burghersdorp, and Aliwal North. It was estimated that in November there were 1,500 Boers in the western districts of Cape Colony, and that opposed to them there were British forces numbering more than 18,000 men. In the Orange River Colony there were thirty-one commandos in the field; in the Transvaal the number of Boers was placed at 2,700, divided into eighteen commandos. At the end of the year, therefore, the total strength of Boers in the field was approximately 8,000 busily engaged in monopolizing the entire attention of more than 180,000 British troops. Towards the end of the year the official figures for British losses in South Africa since the beginning of the war were 855 officers and 16,989 men dead, and 2,504 officers and 57,136 men invalided,

Empire Building.-Though the end of the war seemed a quite distant prospect in the early part of 1901, there were not wanting statesmen in England who were absorbed in formulating plans for the reconstruction of South Africa. The popularly accepted views of what should be the proper policy of Great Britain looked toward the organization of a great federal state, to be ruled by a viceroy and a federal council. As delineated with some detail by Sir Henry Drummond Wolff in the London Times, this federal council was to be in character partly nominative and partly elective, with a veto upon the local legislatures in all matters pertaining to the common welfare. The most serious problem to be confronted in the creation of such a state was the necessity of retaining the preponderant power in the hands of the loyal element among the population. In the solution of this problem some delicate constitutional questions as to the distribution of the franchise and the apportionment of representation in the federal parliament were bound to arise. In general it was recognized that the Boers of the conquered republics could be brought in the end loyally to support a government established under the British auspices; but that until such a time as the reconciliation became perfect it was necessary to render any effectual resistance on their part either in the field or in Parliament impossible.

TRENHOLM, WILLIAM LEE, former comptroller of the currency, died in New York City, January 11, 1901. He was born at Charleston, S. C., February 3, 1836, and graduated at South Carolina College in 1855. He served in the Confederate army throughout the Civil War as colonel of the Rutledge Mounted Riflemen, an organization raised and equipped by himself and his father. President Cleveland made him a United States civil-service commissioner in 1885, and one year later comptroller of the currency, which office he filled until 1889. During his incumbency Comptroller Trenholm advocated with vigor the withdrawal of all greenbacks from circulation and the increase of bank-notes to replace them. He wrote The People's Money (1893).

TRIFERRIN. A chalybeate which has been tested at Göttingen, in the clinic of Professor Ebstein, during 1898, 1899, 1900, and 1901 is triferrin, a paranucleinic acid iron. It is soluble, readily assimilable without gastric disturbance, and is in the available powdered form. It contains iron, phosphorus, and nitrogen. In doses of 3 gramme, 3 times a day, in one of Ebstein's cases of chlorosis, the hemoglobin rose in two months from 15.2 per cent. to 70.75 per cent., and the number of erythrocytes increased from 2,600,000 to 4,800,000.

TRINIDAD and TOBAGO, the two southernmost West Indian islands, constitute a British crown colony. Trinidad has an area of 1,754 square miles and

a population (1900) of 272,000, of whom 78,000 are East Indians. Tobago, with an area of 114 square miles, has a population of 21,000. The seat of government is Port-of-Spain, Trinidad (population 33,273); it has the finest harbor in the West Indies. There are 204 schools in the colony, with an enrollment of 24,866 pupils, and two colleges, with 300 students. The revenue in 1900 was £681,339 and the expendi ture £748,151. The public debt is £918,472, largely representing remunerative public works, especially the railway. In 1900 the imports were valued at £2,535,935 and the exports £2,572,891. The principal exports are cacao, sugar, molasses, and asphalt. In 1900 the asphalt exported from the remarkable asphalt lake near the village of La Brea, on the island of Trinidad, amounted to 140,000 tons. Cacao is the staple product, the area under cultivation being nearly twice that of sugar, and extending steadily. There are 81 miles of railway, all in Trinidad, and 690 miles of telegraph and telephone.

TRINITY COLLEGE, Hartford, Conn., founded in 1824, has productive funds amounting to $750,000. The faculty consists of 27 professors and instructors, and the student-body numbers 131, of whom 8 are graduates. The library comprises over 42,000 volumes and 27,000 pamphlets, and is steadily growing. Many valuable bequests were made to the Hall of Natural History, among others being a large collection of minerals, the first installment of a valuable herbarium, and a large collection of Connecticut insects. During 1901 the college grounds were much improved. TRIPLE ALLIANCE, or League of Peace, as it is sometimes called, has been from its inception the conservator of European peace; yet the year 1901 brought the question of its renewal within the realm of international speculation. The antagonism between Austria-Hungary and Russia in the Balkans, and the ambition of the former to secure a commercial route to Salonica, together with the threatened révanche of France against Germany, led to the alliance, in 1879, of Austria-Hungary and Germany, while Italy was in passive sympathy. The continued hostility of the Vatican, and the clashing of her colonial interests with those of France, induced Italy, however, to assume a fuller responsibility, which she did in 1882, thus completing the Triple Alliance. The provisions of the agreement are not fully known, but that they are mainly defensive is not open to doubt; for the early statement of the signatory powers to that effect has been amply proved by subsequent history. None of the powers is pledged to render aid, when the war is an offensive undertaking, or when the legitimate interests of the country making war are not concerned; the Italian fiasco in Abyssinia (1896) was regarded as in the latter class. The meeting, in 1887, at Friedrichsruhe, between Bismarck and Crispi, was generally regarded as of great political significance, a still closer offensive and defensive alliance being surmised, with a special proviso, according to French public opinion, that in the event of war between France and Germany, Italy would invade southwestern France with 200,000 men. On the other hand, the English press inclined to the belief that the part of Italy would be to relieve Austria-Hungary of the necessity of guarding her Italian frontier, and engage the French on the Alps. Of the allies, Italy, comparatively, because of her impoverished condition and limited resources, is more of a geographical circumstance than a factor of combatant value. Meanwhile, the Dual Alliance of France and Russia, which had its inception in the rapprochement of 1887, culminated in a series of naval visits between France and Russia, beginning with the visit of Admiral Gervais to Cronstadt in 1891 and ending in the formal acknowledgment of the Dual Alliance. In its potentiality the Dual Alliance is as problematical as that of the Triple Alliance; and while its result thus far has been to strike a balance of power, which in itself is a guarantee of peace, it has also afforded Russia a market for the floating of important loans, and "saved France from herself." Although of value to the latter power sentimentally, it did not prove of any more practical help during the Fashoda imbroglio (1898) than did the Triple Alliance to Italy in the Abyssinian incident already noted. The Triple Alliance was renewed in 1891, and again in 1896, when Roumania was admitted; and unless again renewed, it will expire in 1903. During 1901 the growing friendliness of Italy with France; the strongly expressed dissatisfaction of the former with the commercial treaties, soon to expire, between the allies; the healing influence of time in the attitude of France toward Germany; Austria-Hungary's dislike of Germany's Turkish policy; the recrudescence of the old pre-Bismarck rivalry; and the growing universal reluctance to war, have all been taken into account, and their bearing on the renewal of the Triple Alliance much discussed. The Russian and French press generally profess to see clear indications of approaching dissolution, while the Germans, deriving, as they do, the greatest benefits from the Alliance, are naturally optimistic. Austria-Hungary's political struggle against Russia for the maintenance of the Balkan states is a matter affecting her material existence; hence, whatever her troubles with Germany, they do not nearly balance the advantages such an alliance gives her. Italy, apparently, is the unknown quantity. The visit of the

Italian fleet to Toulon early in 1901, and the unsatisfactory treaties already mentioned, have led many to suspect her of an intention to leave the Triple Alliance and possibly join that of France and Russia. Little can be gleaned from the Italian press; but on June 14 the minister for foreign affairs, Signor Prinetti, speaking in the Chamber of Deputies of the nation's foreign policy, declared in effect that if Italy could obtain advantageous treaties she would renew the Alliance. He affirmed its pacific import, and implied by inference that Great Britain would resist any encroachment on Italian rights in the Mediterranean. Alliances usually are dictated from motives of national defense, anticipated aggression, or commercial necessity; and it is from these points of view that the horizon of the political future must be scanned.

TRIPOLI, a vilayet of the Ottoman Empire in North Africa, situated on the Mediterranean Sea between Tunis and Egypt, has an estimated area, together with Benghazi, of 398,900 square miles, and an estimated population of 1,300,000. Tripoli is the chief town, with 40,000 inhabitants. The revenue, which is raised chiefly by a poll-tax and tithes, amounted in 1899 to £110,000. The expenditure in the same year was £160,000. The imports in 1900 were valued at £499,500, and the exports at £418,500 largely esparto, skins, ostrich feathers, and sponges. The leading industries include agriculture and the weaving of cotton and straw.

In December, 1901, serious disturbances, occasioned by decrees imposing military service and increasing taxation, took place near the city of Tripoli, resulting in the proclamation of a state of siege throughout the oasis. Late in the same month the government of Tripoli notified all United States protected residents that unless they renounced the protection of their flag within 15 days they must quit the country. Mr. Eddy, the United States minister to Turkey, thereupon entered protest with the Porte. During 1901 there were frequent rumors and unofficial statements published to the effect that negotiations were in progress between Great Britain, Italy, Spain, and France whereby Italy would obtain possession of Tripoli, Great Britain Tangier, and France all the rest of Morocco; and little attention seemed to be given to a most important factor in the question, the sultan.

TROPICAL MEDICINE. A preliminary report of the investigations conducted by the members of the Yellow Fever Expedition of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine was published in February, 1901. The investigators were Dr. Herbert E. Dunham and Mr. Walter Myers. Both contracted the disease, and Mr. Myers's case proved fatal. His death delays the full report. They found in all fatal cases of yellow fever a small bacillus, resembling that of epidemic influenza (Pfeiffer's bacillus), which had been observed previously by Sternberg, surgeongeneral of the United States army, and others. They did not claim that this was the undoubted cause of the disease. A search for protozoa, which might be specific, was prosecuted unsuccessfully. See CAVITE FEVER; COCHIN-CHINA DIARRHOEA; DYSENTERY; FILARIA; LEPROSY; MALTA FEVER; YELLOW FEVER; also CHARITY ORGANIZATION (paragraph Consumption).

TROUBETZKOY, PAUL, Russian sculptor, in 1901 took first place in the competition for the equestrian statue of the late Emperor, Alexander III.,_soon to be erected at St. Petersburg. He was born at Intra, Lago Maggiore, Italy, February 15, 1866. His father was Prince Pierre Troubetzkoy, and his mother an American. His natural taste for art led him to abandon his preparations for a military career, and he went to Milan, where for a short time he studied sculpture. He soon, however, determined to follow his own methods. In 1886 he exhibited the figure of a horse in Milan, which attracted notice, and his "Indian Scout," the modeling for which was made while Colonel Cody ("Buffalo Bill") was performing in Milan, won for him a gold medal when exhibited at Rome in 1894. He went to St. Petersburg in 1898, and subsequently became professor of sculpture at the Academy of Fine Arts in Moscow. Besides his idealistic work, which is marked by unusual naturalness of pose and delicacy of feeling, he has executed portrait busts of Tolstoy and others.

TRUST AND LOAN COMPANIES. The statistics of trust and loan companies for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, show that within four years the aggregate resources of these companies doubled, the total resources increasing from $843,713,745 in 1897 to $1,614,983,605 in 1901. In the same period the deposits increased from $566,922,205 to $1,271,081,174. The surplus fund, however, did not increase so rapidly, the surplus in 1897 being $68,825,967, and in 1901, $119,609,186. The capital stock has increased even less rapidly, being $106,968,253 in 1896, and $137,361,704 in 1901. During these years the total cash on hand held by the loan and trust companies diminished from $28,587,626 to $24,810,203, and the loans on real estate diminished from $63,643,137 to $59.579,122. On the other hand, loans on other collateral security increased nearly threefold, from $236,044,125 to $607,868,759. Geographically, the loan and trust companies are all situated in the New England and eastern States, with the exception of 40 in Kentucky, Indiana, and Minnesota. The total resources