with a length of 66 feet and a diameter, at its greatest section, of 11 feet. In it illuminating gas took the place of hydrogen, and the compensating air balloon was omitted altogether. As a precaution against the balloon doubling on itself, a 30-foot bamboo pole was fixed lengthwise to the suspension cords above the car and beneath the balloon. The first trip made with this balloon is thus described by the inventor in an interview published in the Century Magazine: "On November 13, 1899, I started from Lachambre's atelier in Vaugirard with the No. 3 on the most successful trip I had yet made. From Vaugirard I went directly to the Champ de Mars, over which I practised describing figure 8's. The air-ship obeyed the rudder beautifully. After circling round the Eiffel Tower a number of times, I made a straight course to the Parc des Princes at Auteuil; then, making a hook, I navigated to the manœuvre-grounds of Bagatelle, where I landed." In this balloon the motor proved too weak, and the whole machine was found to be clumsy. Balloon No. 4 was built in 1900. It was 95 feet long and 9 feet in its greatest diameter. In place of the bamboo stiffening pole of No. 3, the inventor substituted a long, slender framework to which the propelling and controlling machinery was attached and on which the operator sat in a seat like a bicycle saddle, there being no basket. The motor used was a 72 horse-power petroleum engine. Numerous trips were made with this balloon during the Paris Exposition period of 1900. The fifth balloon of M. Santos-Dumont was constructed by adding a section to the middle of No. 4 so as to increase its length to 109 feet. The stiffening frame or "keel" was a carefully designed framework of wood and metal and was 60 feet long. Into this "keel," 20 feet from the stern, was fixed a 16 horse-power petroleum motor, connecting it with the propeller by a long, hollow steel shaft. The operator's basket or car was located 23 feet from the front or stern of the "keel," and from it cords led to the various. operating devices. The most important trip undertaken with this balloon was made on August 8, 1901, in competition for the Deutsch prize of 100,000 francs to be awarded to the first dirigible balloon or air-ship that, between May 1 and October 1, 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903, and 1904 shall rise from the Parc d Aerostation of the Aero Club at St. Cloud, and without touching ground, and by its cwn self-contained means describe a closed circle around the Eiffel Tower and return to its starting point_in 8 minutes 50 seconds, turned in 40 seconds, and was on his way to the starting point when the balloon became deflated and fell onto the roof of the Trocadero Hotel in such a way that the "keel" remained suspended and reserved the life of its occupant. A previous trial trip made with the balloon on July 12 is described as follows in Engineering News of July 18, 1901: "The balloon was steered from St. Cloud to the Longchamps race-course; this course was circled six times at an average speed of 25 miles per hour, and the machine was made to descend to the ground and rise again. The operator then started for the Eiffel Tower and owing to some slight accident he descended easily in the Trocadero Gardens and repaired damages. He then rose again, made a complete circuit of the tower and returned to Longchamps. Including stoppages, the voyage lasted 66 minutes. M SantosDumont uses no ballast and yet easily maintained his altitude of from 100 to 270 meters." On July 13, the trip of the preceding day around the tower was repeated, the distance of seven miles from St. Cloud to the town and back, being covered in 39 minutes. To take the place of balloon No. 5, which was destroyed on August 8; 1901, M. Santos-Dumont built a longer and thicker balloon, the sixth one constructed by him. On October 19, 1901, the inventor undertook to win the Deutsch prize with this balloon. The results of this trip were described as follows in Engineering News of October 20, 1901: "The dirigible balloon constructed by Santos-Dumont succeeded on October 19 in making a trip from St. Cloud to and around the Eiffel Tower, and then back to the starting point in 30 minutes 404 seconds. The first part of the trip to the tower was with the wind, and was made in 8 minutes 45 seconds, but the return trip was against the wind and required 20 minutes 30 seconds to complete. The remaining 1 minute 404 seconds was consumed in descending. The trip was undertaken as the result of a prize of 100,000 francs offered the inventor should he succeed in making the journey in 30 minutes. According to the press despatches, the balloon pitched somewhat when going against the wind, and Santos-Dumont, when he descended, said the motor suddenly stopped while the balloon was at a little distance from the tower. He thought he might have to descend, but luckily he succeeded in getting the machine started again. From that time on the motor worked satisfactorily." To sum up briefly the experiments of M. Santos-Dumont, the following conclusions seem to cover all that has actually been accomplished: Several balloons have been built with which the inventor was able to ascend and descend and to turn around a fixed point at will; in all but a few trips some accident has occurred to the whole or a part of the balloon; of the two trips (July 13 and October 19) around the Eiffel Tower, which were accurately timed, the journey of seven miles was made once in 39 minutes and once in 30 minutes 402 seconds. These facts are truly notable, but it should not be

forgotten that the dirigible balloons of Renard and Krebs in 1884 and of Zeppelin in 1900 accomplished practically the same results. In 1901 M. Deutsch began the construction of a dirigible balloon to be operated by a motor of 60 horse-power, by far the most powerful engine that has as yet been actually planned for a flying machine of any sort.

AFGHANISTAN. A monarchy lying east of Persia, between Russian Turkistan and British India. The capital is Kabul.

Area and Population.-The total area of the four provinces, Kabul, Herat, Turkistan, and Kandahar, and the Badakshan district, comprising Afghanistan, is something over 215,000 square miles, and the population about 4,000,000. The inhabitants do not form a homogeneous nationality, but comprise several races or tribes; most of these, however, are united in religion-that of the Suni sect of the Mohammedans.

Government, etc.-Government is directed by the Ameer, whose will theoretically is absolute. From 1880 to 1901 the Ameer was Abdurrahman (q.v.), grandson of Dost Mohammed, the founder of the present dynasty. Abdurrahman died October 3, 1901, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Habibullah Khan. Afghanistan is practically under British influence; it has no foreign relations except with the government of British India, maintaining a political agent at Calcutta and accrediting a British resident (who must be a Mohammedan) at Kabul. The provinces are administered by governors. Extortion and dishonesty prevail in the collection of taxes; the amount of the annual public revenue is unknown. The ameer receives from the Indian government an annual subsidy of 18 lakhs of rupees (£120,000). The strength of the army is estimated at 44,000 men; the late ameer declared that at any time he could put into the field 100,000 trained soldiers. The military equipment, which is ample and of good quality, is supplied by the factories established by Abdurrahman at Kabul.

Industries and Commerce.-The inhabitants give considerable attention to agriculture, raising cereals, lentils, fruits, etc. Various minerals occur but are little developed. Manufactures include silks, carpets, and articles made of camels' and goats' hair. Statistics of commerce are not available, but the total annual trade with India is estimated at £800,000. The leading imports include cotton goods, dyeing materials, sugar, and tea; the exports: asafoetida, grain, horses, wool, silk, cattle, and hides.

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History. Abdurrahman's death, though reported on October 3, 1901, is said to have occurred two days earlier and been concealed by his successor to insure a peaceful accession to the throne. Habibullah Khan, the Beloved of God," chosen by the late ameer, succeeded him, apparently without opposition from his brothers, and was favorably received by the people. The new ameer did not come into power without knowledge of rule; for several years he had been intrusted with the administration of important state affairs, and early in 1901 his duties were increased. His father, who practically made Afghanistan what it is to-daya country of definite boundaries with a comparatively strong central government and an army able to defend them-was more feared than loved by the people. The new ameer is a man of gentler disposition than his predecessor, and in spite of his assurance that he would follow in the latter's footsteps, it was expected that his rule would show more leniency and effect various reforms. Shortly after his coronation he raised the pay of the soldiers, released certain prisoners from the jails throughout the country, and promised a reduction of taxes. There were indications that he would attempt to revive the former flourishing trade with India, which Abdurrahman's fiscal policy had largely destroyed. Since Afghanistan is a buffer state between the British and Russian empires, it has a large political significance, and the Afghan succession was, before Abdurrahman's death, a subject of much concern. The belief has been common that Russia did not favor Habibullah, but that government gave no evidence of such feeling on his accession. The new ameer was born at Samarkand in 1872, his mother being the daughter of the Mir of Badakshan. He is allied, through his wives, with several of the important chiefs of Afghanistan.

In 1901 Mr. Frank A. Martin, engineer-in-chief for the Afghan government since 1895, was engaged in extensive engineering works; canals and other irrigation works were in process of construction near Kabul, and an important road was being built toward the Oxus. In that district, it was reported, Abdurrahman had been erecting a number of forts, "well equipped with the most modern appliances, including electric searchlights." At the same time it was stated that he had ordered several heavy Krupp guns, while a nearly maximum amount of work was being done in the Kabul workshops, the output including smokeless powder.

AFRICA. So large a part of Africa is not known sufficiently well to admit of even approximately accurate estimates of area and population that figures for the area of the continent as a whole and its total number of inhabitants are little better

than guesses. The estimates of the several divisions that on the whole appear to be most trustworthy show an aggregate area of about 11,604,000 square miles and a population of about 156,780,000.

Independent Africa comprises Morocco, in the northwestern corner of the continent, Abyssinia in the east, Liberia in the west, and the Congo State in the central equatorial region. The total area of these territories is placed at 1,344,000 square miles and the population 39,000,000. It should be noted that the Congo State, so far as native influence is concerned, cannot be regarded as really independent.

One of the distinctive features of the close of the nineteenth century was the partition of Africa among the European powers. British territory, that is, colonies, protectorates, etc., includes Gambia and Sierra Leone, on the Atlantic, Gold Coast, Lagos, and Nigeria on the Gulf of Guinea, a part of Somaliland on the Gulf of Aden, the immense region extending from the Cape of Good Hope to Lake Tanganyika, and the still larger region extending from Egypt (the 22d parallel) to Victoria Nyanza and the Indian Ocean. The total estimated area of these territories is about 3,031,000 square miles and the population about 52,647,800. Egypt also, with about 400,000 square miles and 9,734,000 inhabitants, is practically under British influence. During 1901 the policy of the British government toward its African colonies and protectorates was severely criticised. It was alleged that, after new territory had been placed under British supremacy and some form of administration instituted, little further attention was given thereto by the imperial government. Imperial subventions, when not evaded, were made as small as possible, and often paid in such small instalments that they fell far short of meeting the real needs of the dependencies. As results of this "unintelligent parsimony" there were cited such disasters as the mutiny of the unpaid Soudanese troops in Uganda, and numerous outrages necessitating punitive expeditions. When so serious a thing as mutiny occurs, the government is ready to expend any amount of money needed to set matters right again; then affairs, it is held, are allowed to slip back to the same old channels. Adverse criticism was made against a colonial office that allows its colonial administrators to remain almost alone among savage and hostile tribes. In commenting upon the frequent murders of such unprotected officials, a writer said: "At once there is a punitive expedition organized; valuable lives are lost; a couple of hundred thousand pounds are spent; the natives are 'punished,' and the supplementary estimate necessitated by the little war' is made the excuse for exercising a still more rigid economy than the ordinary estimates for the protectorate." The London Times said editorially: "A penny-wise and pound-foolish policy is tolerated in the management of the greatest machine of government that the world has ever seen."

British efforts in African colonization, however, are distinctively more successful than French and German. French Africa extends from Algeria and Tunis southward, touching at various points the Atlantic and the Gulf of Guinea north of the equator and the Atlantic again south of the equator. In addition, France holds a small part of Somaliland. The total estimated area is about 3.326,000 square miles and the population about 32,682,000. In this territory French rule has been most successful in Algeria, which, it should be pointed out, is regarded administratively as an integral part of France.

German Africa includes Togoland on the Gulf of Guinea; Cameroon, extending from that body of water to Lake Tchad; German East Africa, lying between Lake Tanganyika and the Indian Ocean, and German Southwest Africa, bordering the south Atlantic. The total estimated area is 930,760 square miles and the population over 12,300,000. Thus far German colonial progress in Africa has been decidedly disappointing. The German population of these territories is surprisingly small, amounting to only a few thousands. The Germans seem to have a genius for commerce, but not for permanent settlement in new and undeveloped lands; and where German immigration is large, as in the United States, the newcomers readily lose political affiliations with the Fatherland. In addition to the inherent difficulty in the problem of German colonization, the projects of the Berlin government are further impeded, and seriously, by opposition in the Reichstag. This body refuses to vote the needed subsidies and guarantees for colonial works. This is conspicuously true with regard to the projected railways of German East Africa, the construction of which became in 1901 all the more important, from the German point of view, by the completion of the Uganda railway in British East Africa.

Portuguese territory includes the large colonies on the east and west coasts of southern Africa and the small colony of Portuguese Guinea bordering the north Atlantic. The total estimated area is about 790,000 square miles and the population 8,059,000. During 1901 fears were expressed in some quarters that the British advance in South Africa is destined to absorb, at least in part, the East African possessions of Portugal.

Italian Africa comprises Eritrea, on the Red Sea, and a portion of Somaliland, the extreme eastern part of the continent, the combined area of which is estimated