(1864), La Nivernaise (1866), and Le Petit Poucet (1868). In 1881 he went to Paris, and while there composed light operas in collaboration with the librettists Chivol and Duru. With them he produced La Mascotte, his greatest success (1881), La Dormeuse Eveillée (1883), Le Grand Mogul (1884), and others. He wrote the music for M. Boucheron's operetta, Miss Helyett (1890), and produced one mass in 1873, which was sung both at Marseilles and at Paris.

AUSTRALIA, COMMONWEALTH OF. A British colonial possession comprising the five States of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia, forming the mainland of Australia, and the island State of Tasmania.

Area and Population.-The total estimated area, including Tasmania, is 2,973,076 square miles. The population in 1891 was reported at 3,183,237, and in 1901 at 3,777,212, distributed as follows: New South Wales, 1,132,234 and 1,362,232; Victoria, 1,140,405 and 1,195,874; Queensland, 393,718 and 502,892; South Australia, 320,431 and 362,595; Western Australia, 49,782 and 182,553; Tasmania, 146,667 and 171,066. Thus for the last decade the population of Australia has increased by 593,975, or less than 19 per cent., the smallest relative increase for the last four decades, during which the population increased as follows: 1861-71, 512,279; 1871-81, 586,697; 1881-91, 930,620; and 1891-1901, 593,975. The insignificance of the increase for the period of 1891-1901 becomes still more apparent when the fact is considered that the excess of births over deaths during the decade was 588,647, which leaves only 5,328 for the increase from immigration, while during the preceding three decades the increase from immigration was 176,814, 194,709, and 393,750 respectively. The immigrants of the last decade consisted mostly of colored persons.

Government and Finance.-In accordance with the constitution adopted in 1900 the six states of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, Tasmania, and Western Australia form a federal commonwealth under the crown of Great Britain. At the head of the administration is a governor-general appointed by the king, and assisted by an executive council of seven members formed by a leader of the dominant political party from among the members of both houses of Parliament. The latter body consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate numbers 36 members (6 from each state) elected by popular vote for a period of six years. The House consists of 75 members elected in the following proportion: New South Wales, 26; Victoria, 23; Queensland, 9; South Australia, 7; Tasmania, 5; and Western Australia, 5. The members of the House are elected in the same way as the members of the Senate, and the qualifications for membership are the same in both houses. Parliament must meet not less than once a year and is convened and dissolved by the governor-general. The legislative powers of Parliament are very comprehensive, embracing, besides the ordinary affairs of state, the control of foreign corporations formed within the limits of the commonwealth, the acquisition and extension of railways, the enacting of laws affecting family relations, and the settlement of industrial disputes. The powers of the Senate are equal with those of the House, except in the case of financial legislation, which can neither originate nor be amended in the Senate. Every measure passed by both houses of Parliament must receive the approval of the governor-general in order to become law, and even then may be annulled by the king within a year after the governorgeneral's assent. The judicial authority of the commonwealth is vested in the federal supreme court, called the High Court of Australia, and other federal courts. Justices of the High Court are appointed by the governor-general and removed at his discretion. The function of the High Court is to determine appeals from other federal courts, from the Supreme Court of any state, or from any other court of any state from which an appeal had to be made to the King in Council at the establishment of the federation. No appeal from a decision affecting the limits inter se of the constitutional powers of the commonwealth or of any one or more states can be made to the King in Council unless approved by the High Court. According to the provisions of the constitution, uniform duties are to be established for the entire commonwealth two years after the establishment of the federation (1903), and from that date the granting of bounties on production or exportation of goods is to be determined by the federal government exclusively, except in the case of bounties on gold, silver, and other metals. Interstate free trade exists since the establishment of the federation, but countervailing duties are paid on all goods imported before the establishment of a unform tariff. For ten years after the establishment of the federation the federal expenditures must not exceed one-fourth of the revenue derived from customs and excise, and the remainder is to be returned to the states or used for the payment of debts taken over by the federal government. According to the statement of Sir George Turner, the federal treasurer, the commonwealth revenue from customs and excise will amount under ordinary circumstances to about £8,950,In 1901 the revenue from these sources was estimated at £8,000,000, and from postal and defense service, at £2,330,750. The expenditure was estimated at £3,024,

000.

106, leaving a balance of £6,305,644 to be returned to the states. The expenditure for the same year on account of the federation was £205,000.

HISTORY.

The Inauguration of the Commonwealth.-The new commonwealth of Australia came into existence on the first day of January, 1901, on which date Lord Hopetoun (qv), the new governor-general, was inaugurated at Sydney, New South Wales, and the first federal ministry assumed the reins of government. Lord Hopetoun, upon his arrival in Australia in December, 1900, had asked Sir William Lyne, the premier of New South Wales, to form the first cabinet. Sir William consulted with the premiers of the other states and found that Sir George Turner, of Victoria, and Mr. Holder, of South Australia, would join a ministry only under Mr. Edmund P. Barton (q.v.), the "father of the Commonwealth Bill." Thereupon Sir William Lyne advised Lord Hopetoun to send for Mr. Barton, who consented to form a ministry. Mr. Barton distributed his portfolios as follows: Prime minister and minister for external affairs, Rt. Hon. E. P. Barton, New South Wales; attorney-general, Mr. Alfred Deakin, Victoria; minister for home affairs, Sir William Lyne, New South Wales; treasurer, Sir George Turner, Victoria; minister of trade and commerce, Mr. Charles C. Kingston, South Australia; minister of defense, Sir James Dickson, Queensland; postmaster-general, Sir John Forrest, Western Australia. Sir James Dickson died a few days after his appointment and Sir John Forrest was appointed his successor, he in turn being succeeded as postmaster-general by Mr. James J. Drake, of Queensland. On complaint of Tasmania that it was not represented, Mr. N. C. Lewis, the Tasmanian premier, was added as a member without portfolio, but in April he was succeeded by Sir C. O. Fysh. Thus constituted the cabinet remained throughout the year. No exact classification of the cabinet as to political affiliations is possible, but a majority of the members were protectionists. On January 17 Mr. Barton outlined the policy of the ministry as to legislation. He said they would favor a protective tariff, with reciprocity with Great Britain if possible, and bills for conciliation and arbitration of labor disputes, a transcontinental railway, woman's suffrage, and Asiatic exclusion.

It was

The Elections: Political Parties.-On Mr. Barton's statement of policy as a platform, the ministry entered the campaign for the first federal elections, which were held on March 30. The result, which turned principally on the tariff question, was a victory for the government, although in some of the states party lines were scarcely recognized, and a majority of the members from Queensland, where the sole issue was the Kanaka labor question, could not be classified. admitted, however, that the government's declared protective policy would be supported even by some who were not avowed protectionists, and that the ministry had a good working majority for carrying out its programme. Before the end of the year the Labor party, aggregating only 27 members in both houses, proved itself to be the best organized party in the federal Parliament. Throughout the session it Its members could generally be practically held the balance of power, and kept both Mr. Barton and Mr. Reid, the leader of the opposition, bidding for its votes. counted upon by the government whenever the latter was willing to give a suitable quid pro quo. This bargaining aroused considerable criticism, the Queensland government charging, for instance, that the sugar industry in that state had been sacrificed to the Labor party's demand for the abolition of Kanaka labor. Besides the passage of this bill the Labor party secured very considerable reductions in the tariff schedule, as presented in the ministry's bill.

Legislation: Federal Defense.-The first session of the federal Parliament was opened in the Exposition Building at Melbourne on May 9, 1901, by the Duke of Cornwall. Hon. Frederic W. Holder, a strong supporter of the government and an avowed protectionist, was chosen speaker of the House of Representatives. The legislative programme was practically the same as that upon which the campaign had been fought. The early months of the session were taken up with discussions of bills providing for the administration of the federal business. The federal defense bill, which was heralded by the French press as the beginning of militarism among Anglo-Saxon peoples, was introduced in June. It practically provides for conscription, though in a disguised and contingent form. Every male between the ages of 18 and 60 is liable to military service. Ordinarily the force will be raised by voluntary enlistment. Mr. Barton explained to the House that it was not intended to create a standing army or to provide anything of the nature of continental conscription, but that it was simply intended to demonstrate to Australia itself and to the world what Australia "could do in an emergency." In proof of which it was shown that while the existing defense forces of Australia numbered 62,000, under the new bill the number available for defense would amount to 974,000.

The "Black Labor" Question.-The first evidence of the growing hostility to "black labor" was seen during the debate over the postal regulations bill, when the Labor

party forced the government to accept an amendment prohibiting the employment of black labor on any steamship holding a contract for carrying Australian mails, a provision which, if enforced, would require the "P. & O." mail steamships to discharge all their lascar deck hands and Chinese cooks. With the introduction of the immigration restriction and Pacific islander bills in July the strength of the “White Australia" party was clearly shown. The immigration bill as originally introduced placed restrictions on immigration and provided for the removal of prohibited persons. The educational test was radical, prohibiting the landing of any person who could not write 50 English words dictated by an immigration officer. The Labor party proposed amendments prohibiting absolutely the immigration of native-born Asiatics or Africans and providing for the exclusion of any person who shall come to Australia under a contract of any sort. The first was defeated on Mr. Barton's informing the House that the imperial government would not assent to any law which made color or nationality a reason for exclusion. After it was pointed out that the contract-laborer amendment would exclude even an English clergyman appointed to an Australian bishopric, it was made to apply to manual labor only and the government accepted the amendment. After the restriction as to the English language had been changed to any European language, and the bill practically remodeled on the Natal law, it was passed early in December. The Pacific Islanders' Bill (see QUEENSLAND), which provided for the gradual abolition of all Kanaka and Polynesian labor, to be complete by the end of 1906, met violent opposition. It was passed against the advice of the imperial government, and in the face of opposition from the Queensland government, which declared that it was almost entirely a Queensland question, there not being 500 Pacific Islanders in Australia outside that State. The act was passed in December, and the Queensland ministry, declaring that the sacrifice of the Queensland sugar industry was the price paid by Premier Barton for the Labor vote in Parliament, asked the imperial government that the royal assent be withheld.

Tariff and Shipping Bills.—The tariff bill which was introduced by Mr. Kingston on October 8 was a protective measure with no discrimination in favor of Great Britain. The bill proposed to raise £9,000,000 as follows: £2,100,000 by customs and excise duties on stimulants and the remainder from port duties of three sorts, fixed, composite, and ad valorem. The duties averaged about 18.7 per cent., but in the case of composite duties ran up as high as 70 per cent. An elaborate system of bonuses was provided for, especially in aid of iron-smelting and machine shops. Mr. Reid led the opposition to the bill, bringing forward a motion of "no confidence"; this was lost on November I by a vote of 39 to 25. The government, however, was compelled to concede reductions to the Labor party, the general result being that by the end of the year, of 74 groups examined, 38 had been reduced, composite duties were entirely abandoned, and the estimated revenue-yielding power of the bill cut by £1,168,000. A shipping bill, which gave to a federal commission almost complete control, not only of interstate commerce, but of foreign vessels engaged in Australian trade, was introduced by the government, and criticised as likely to give offense to foreign powers.

Industrial Arbitration.-Early in December a federal industrial arbitration bill, on the lines of the New Zealand act, was passed by Parliament. It makes strikes illegal, and labor unions financially responsible for their acts. A court of arbitration is established, presided over by a judge of the federal supreme court, which has most of the powers exercised by the Victoria wages boards, but is likely to prove less partisan.

Other Events of the Year.-During 1901 there developed in the State parliaments a tendency to criticise the federal Parliament. In New South Wales bitter attacks were made upon it for extravagances and for alleged invasion of State rights. On all sides it was criticised for being slow, and the trouble was generally said to be that Mr. Barton had no driving power. The estimates of the cost of the federal administration, which were raised from £300,000 to £500,000, together with the fact that large "allowances" were being made federal officials, called forth comment. It was declared that the biggest thing the Parliament had done was "talking 10,000 pages of Hansard."

In June a parliamentary commission was appointed to inquire into the advisability of adopting the decimal system of coinage, and providing for a federal coinage on that basis. The federal commission appointed to select a site for the new capital city reported three sites in New South Wales: Orange, a town 150 miles northwest of Sydney; Bumbah, 100 miles due west of Sydney; and Yass, 200 miles southwest of Sydney. Late in the year a federal flag was adopted. The accepted design has the Union Jack in the upper left-hand corner, on a blue (or, for marine, red) body, with a six-pointed star emblematic of the six federated States immediately below it. The other half contains the "southern cross."

The financial outlook in the commonwealth is not bright.

All the States have

for some years been borrowing too freely, spending loan money on matters which ought to be provided for out of the revenue, and the late loans have been floated only at a great cost for brokerage. For the year ending June, 1901, the six States had used up £7,500,000 borrowed money, and in 10 years had sent to London £70,000,000 in payment of interest. This situation will undoubtedly prove a handicap to the federal government when it enters the loan market, as it must do.

Australian Policy; Growth of a National Spirit.-The dominant note in the first year of the new commonwealth's history was "nationalization" as opposed to imperialism. In a dozen different ways this spirit has manifested itself. Most interesting perhaps has been the strength of the movement for Australia to build and maintain her own fleet, which has been opposed by the British Admiralty, who prefer naturally to have the commonwealth contribute money to the British naval estimates. One critic, Dr. Fitchett, an acknowledged imperialist, says: "It would be nothing less than disaster for the British Admiralty to commit itself to a policy which is in conflict with the national sentiment and truest interest of Australia." In November, when the question of taking charge of the administration of (British) New Guinea (q.v.) was under discussion in Parliament, there was an illustration of the fact that the Australians are striking out for themselves along lines formerly considered as belonging wholly to the imperial government. During the debate, the federal Parliament affirmed, unanimously almost, its desire to formulate a "Monroe doctrine" for the Pacific, opposing the further expansion of European or Asiatic nations in the Pacific, which ought henceforth to be considered Australia's "back yard." As this policy, if adopted, would almost assuredly lead to trouble with Germany, it was brought forward as an additional reason for Australia's need of a fleet. The adoption of a policy as to alien immigration and labor directly opposed to the customary imperial policy and the spirit shown in the passage of the Pacific Islander bill, contrary to Mr. Chamberlain's advice, show a remarkable tendency toward independence in legislation. And a national coinage, a national flag, and national postage stamps are only less important manifestations of the same spirit. See NEW SOUTH WALES, QUEENSLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, TASMANIA, VICTORIA, and WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, a constitutional monarchy of central Europe comprising the empire of Austria and the kingdom of Hungary, united under one sovereign, Franz Josef I. The capital of Austria is Vienna and of Hungary Budapest; the Delegations, a legislative body common to both countries, convene each year in each of the capitals alternately.

Area and Population.—The monarchy has a total area of 240,942 square miles, of which Austria comprises 115,903 square miles, and Hungary (including Croatia and Slavonia, 16,773 square miles) 125,039 square miles. According to the census of December 31, 1890, the population of Austria was 23,895,413 and of Hungary 17,463.791-total, 41,359.204. The census of December 31, 1900, showed the population of Austria to be 26,107,304 and of Hungary 19,203.531-total, 45,310,835. According to the latter census the population of the principal Austrian provinces were: Galicia, 7,295,538; Bohemia, 6,318.280; Lower Austria, 3,086,382; Moravia, 2,435,081; Styria, 1,356,058; Tyrol and Voralberg, 979,878; Upper Austria, 809,918. The population of Hungary proper was 16,691,471; Croatia and Slavonia, 2,397,249; and the town of Fiume, 38,139. In addition the military numbered 114.393. The last census showed the population of the largest Austrian cities to be: Vienna, 1,648,335; Prague, 204,478; Trieste, 178,672; Lemberg, 159,618; Gratz, 138,370; Brünn, 108,944. The population of Budapest was 713.383.

Common Government and Finance.-The executive authority rests with Franz Josef, who became emperor of Austria in December, 1848. and king of Hungary in June, 1867. The heir presumptive is the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, son of the late Archduke Karl Ludwig, brother of Franz Josef. The present relations of Austria and Hungary date from the "compromise" of 1867, which is of indefinite duration and is based on similar clauses in the constitutions of the two states. Under this compromise the common administration is directed by the emperor-king, assisted by a ministry of three members, for foreign affairs, finance, and war, who are responsible to the common legislature called the Delegations. These are two in number, composed of sixty members each; the one convenes annually at Vienna and the other at Budapest. The composition of the common ministry in 1900 was: For foreign affairs, Count Agenor M. A. Goluchowski (since May, 1895); for finance, Benjamin de Kállay (since June, 1882); for war, General E. von Krieghammer (since September, 1893). The common government deals with foreign affairs, the Pursuant to a army, the navy, finance relating to the monarchy as a whole, customs, certain state monopolies, and the diplomatic, postal, and telegraphic services. reciprocity treaty concluded in 1899, when the customs union between Austria and Hungary was formally dissolved, the common expenses of the monarchy are borne in the proportion of 65.6 per cent. for Austria and 34.4 per cent. for Hungary, and

the status of practically common customs is continued, the provisions of the treaty to expire December 31, 1907.

The monetary standard is gold and the unit of value (since January 1, 1900) the krone (crown), worth 20.3 cents. The former unit of value, still in use to a large extent by the people, was the florin, worth two kronen. The estimated revenue and expenditure have balanced as follows: For 1900, 337,348,000 kronen; for 1901, 357,034,766 kronen; for 1902, 357,814,966 kronen. The estimated receipts from customs are: For 1900, 124,950,000 kronen; for 1901, 125,039,249 kronen; for 1902, 110,541,299 kronen. By far the largest expenditure is for war and marine, the estimate being 342,118,520 kronen for 1901 and 342,568,542 kronen for 1902.

Joint debts are not contracted by the dual monarchy. A debt, however, was assumed in common when the union was effected in 1867, and this in 1900 amounted to 5,438,989,758 kronen, the charges being 191,474,110 kronen for Austria and 60,621,206 kronen for Hungary. In addition there is a floating debt amounting in 1900 to 321,978,260 kronen, of which Austria's share was 24,285,800 kronen.

Army and Navy.-On a peace footing the strength of the Austro-Hungarian army in 1900 was reported as follows: The common army consisting of fifteen army corps had 20,780 officers and 283,513 men; the Austrian Landwehr comprised 2,601 officers and 25,068 men, and the Hungarian Honvédség 3,013 officers and 26,658 men; accordingly, the active army numbered 26,454 officers and 335,239 men-the total being 361,693. On a war footing the number of officers is placed at over 45,000 and of men at about 1,827,000-total, about 1,872,000. With the various reserves the total military strength on a war footing is estimated at over 4,000,000 men.

The navy though small is efficient, and a programme is now being carried out for replacing obsolescent vessels by new ones of modern construction and effectiveness. The fleet was reported to comprise in 1900 one second-class battleship, four thirdclass battleships, two armored cruisers, eight protected cruisers, seven port-defense vessels, twelve torpedo gunboats, thirty-two first-class torpedo boats, thirty-one second-class torpedo boats, and eight third-class torpedo boats.

The latest addition to the navy is the Arpad, an armored turret battleship, which was launched on September 11, 1901. A sister ship, the Hapsburg, was launched in September, 1900, and a third vessel of the same type, the Babenberg, has been laid down. Each of these has a displacement of 8,340 tons, exceeding by over 1,400 tons the Erzherzog Rudolf, which was previously the largest modern vessel of the fleet. Though of comparatively small tonnage the Arpad has a strong armament; the indicated horse-power is 11,000; maximum speed 18.5 knots; and its coal capacity 800 tons, allowing a voyage of 3,600 geographical miles.

Government and Finance of Austria.-The executive authority is vested in the emperor and the administration is carried on by a ministry of ten members appointed by the emperor and responsible to the legislative body, the Reichsrath. This body consists of an upper house (Herrenhaus) and a lower house (Abgeordnetenhaus), the members of the latter being elective. Austria has no separate ministry for foreign affairs. The premier and minister of the interior since January 21, 1900, has been Dr. Ernst von Koerber. Each province has a representative diet (Landtag), which deals with matters not reserved for the Reichsrath.

The revenue and expenditure in kronen (20.3 cents) have been estimated as follows, respectively: 1900, 1,585,811,822 and 1,586,403.933; 1901, 1,641,997,585 and 1.641,163,344; 1902, 1,685,966,357 and 1,685,117,944. The consolidated debt in 1900 amounting to 3,132,060,222 kronen and the floating debt 21,456,202 kronen-total, 3,163,516,424 kronen. Interest and amortization amounted to 152,555,874 kronen. Government and Finance of Hungary.-The administration of Hungary, including Croatia and Slavonia, is directed by a ministry of 9 members appointed by the king and responsible to the legislative body, the Reichstag (Országgyülés). This body is bicameral; the members of the lower house are elected by popular vote. Like Austria, Hungary has no separate ministry for foreign affairs. The premier and minister of the interior since February 26, 1899, has been Koloman de Szell. In addition to representation in the Reichstag, Croatia-Slavonia has a separate diet.

The estimated revenue and expenditure in kronen have been reported at 1,054,513,404 and 1,052,681,821 respectively for 1900 and 1,056,582,297 and 1,056,556,417 respectively for 1901. In 1899 the consolidated debt amounted to 2,178,066,000 kronen and the total debt 4.950.450,000 kronen.

Religion and Education.-Religious toleration prevails, but the emperor-king must be a member of the Roman Catholic Church; that church is the prevailing religious influence in both Austria and Hungary, but is stronger in the former. In both countries elementary education is free and compulsory. The pupils attending the elementary schools in 1899 numbered 3,483,646 in Austria and 3,231,739 in Hungary. There are numerous institutions for secondary, higher, and technical education-the Gymnasia and Realschulen, universities and colleges, and professional schools. Industries.-The leading industry in both Austria and Hungary is agriculture.