and the embargo. At the end of his second term he retired to his home at Monticello, where he passed the remainder of his life. He was the founder of the Democratic-Republican party, a party that has existed to the present day. Though of aristocratic birth, his sympathies were intensely popular; he hated display and pomp and carried his love of simplicity to the extreme of objecting even to so harmless a title as Mister. His influence on the government has been to check the tendency to extreme centralization, which, if developed, might have led to a nation too unpliable and unwieldy for long life, and has made it the admirable combination of pliability and resistance that it is. (See State Sovereignty; Kentucky Resolutions of 1798.)

Jingoism. This word arose in British Politics. During the war between Russia and Turkey, English sympathy was most strongly with Turkey and hostile to Russia. A song became popular, the refrain of which was:

"We don't want to fight, but, by Jingo, if we doWe've got the ships, we've got the men, we've got the money, too."

From this arose the name jingoism as applied to the war feeling against Russia. The term has, however, come to mean in politics any advocacy of national bluster. It is sometimes used in this country.

Johnny Reb was a name by which the Union soldiers during the Civil War familiarly called the Confederates. Reb is, of course, an abbreviation of rebel.

Johnson, Andrew, was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, December 29, 1808, and died in Carter County, Tennessee, July 31, 1875. He was mayor of Greenville, Tennessee; member of the State Legislature in 1835 and State Senate in 1841; Congressman from Tennessee from 1843 to 1853. He was at this time a Democrat. From 1853 to 1857 he was Governor of Tennessee, and United States Senator from 1857 to 1862. In 1862 he was appointed Military Governor of Tennessee, and in 1864 the Republicans nominated him as Vice-President. On Lincoln's assassination he became President. He began almost at once to quarrel with Congress, and his impeachment marked the culmina

tion of that conflict. (See Impeachments.) The most important matter during his administration was Reconstruction (which see). Johnson's early education had been neglected to such an extent that it was only after his marriage that he learned to read and write. He was persistent and determined, but blind to the political signs of the times. In 1875 he was elected United States Senator, but served only at the extra session, dying in July.

Johnson, Reverdy, was born at Annapolis, Maryland, May 21, 1796, and died at the same place February 10, 1876. He was a lawyer. He served as Senator from 1845 to 1849, and as Attorney-General under Taylor; during this time he was a Whig. From 1863 to 1868 he was again Senator, this time as a Democrat, and in 1869 he was Minister to Great Britain.

Johnson, Richard Mentor, was born at Bryant's Station, Kentucky, October 17, 1781; he died November 19, 1850. He served in the War of 1812. He was a Democrat, and as such served in Congress from 1807 to 1819; from 1820 to 1829 he was in the Senate, and from 1829 to 1839 again in the House. He was the Democratic Vice-Presidential candidate in 1840.

Jonathan, Brother. (See Brother Jonathan.)

Judge Lynch. A popular name for a body of persons who take the law into their own hands in punishing criminals or those suspected of being such. (See Lynch Law.)

Judiciary. I. NATIONAL. The third Article of the Constitution provides for the establishment of United States courts to have jurisdiction both in law and in equity. This jurisdiction is in general distinct from, but is sometimes concurrent with, that of the State courts. The system which Congress adopted at its first session remains unaltered in its essentials to the present time, except for the addition of the Court of Claims in 1855. The judges are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. They retain office during good behavior. The judicial power of the United States is vested in a Supreme Court, nine Circuit Courts, and sixty-one District Courts, besides the Court of Claims. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction only of "cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall

be a party;" that is, only such cases can be commenced therein, but cases decided in the other Federal courts, under certain prescribed conditions, can be reviewed by the Supreme Court by virtue of its appellate jurisdiction. The limits of the original jurisdictions of the District and Circuit Courts, and the appellate jurisdiction of the latter over the former, are provided by law. Besides other matters, the Circuit Court has exclusive jurisdiction of patent suits and the District Court of admiralty cases. The Court of Claims has jurisdiction of claims against the United States. The Justices of the Supreme Court, besides their functions as such, are each assigned to one of the circuits, being then known as Circuit Justices. There is also a separate Circuit Judge for each circuit, and a District Judge for each district. Circuit Courts may be held by the Circuit Justice, by the Circuit Judge or by the District Judge sitting alone, or by any two of these sitting together. As constituted at first, the Supreme Court consisted of a Chief-Justice and five Associate-Justices, but the number of the latter has been changed from time to time, and there are at present eight. (See Chief-Justice.) The salary of the Chief-Justice is $13,000, and of Associate-Justices $12,500 per annum. Besides these regular federal courts, the Senate sits when necessary as a court of impeachment; the District of Columbia has a Supreme Court over which the Supreme Court of the United States has appellate jurisdiction; and Territorial Courts are provided, the judges of which are nominated for terms of four years by the President, and confirmed by the Senate, and over which the Supreme Court has also appellate jurisdiction. Cases decided in the highest court of any State may also be reviewed by the Supreme Court, but only when federal questions are involved; that is, when the controversy deals with the Constitution, laws or treaties of the United States.

II. STATE. The judicial systems of the several States are too widely different to permit of brief explanation. In some of them courts of equity are distinct from those of law, while in others the same tribunals exercise both functions, and in still others all distinction between actions at law and suits in equity is abolished. The manner of selecting judges also varies in different States and from time to