of the ear near the tip. The hoofs are moderately large, deep in front, shallow behind, and much expanded at their margin.

The subject above described has been two years in the Menagerie. She suffers a boy to ride her about the yard, and is frequently allowed to run loose through the tower, with a man by her side, whom she does not attempt to quit, except to run to the canteen, where she is occasionally indulged with a draught of ale, of which she is particularly fond. She may hence be inferred to be a very sensible animal.

Le Vaillant, in his Travels, mentions another species of the genus Equus, under the name of L'Ane Isabelle, which, however, has never been seen or heard of since. It was in all probability an albino variety of either the zebra or the quagga. As to the cloven-footed horse of South America, the Equus bisulcus of Gmelin, called Gnemel or Huemel, by Molina, there is no reason to suppose that it is a horse at all. It ought rather to be referred to one or other of those species of lama called Auchenia.

Let us conclude, for the present, with a few observations concerning mules. Mules, in general, are the hybrids, or mixed offspring produced by two animals of different species; mules, in particular, are the progeny of the horse and ass, or of the jack-ass and the mare.

1st, Of Mules in general.- Animals which, by their union, produce fertile individuals, are generally reputed of the same species. This law of Nature, as it was formerly called, having been found to admit of certain, though rare, exceptions, is not now so broadly insisted on as a test of specific identity as it was in preceding times. But it appears from the result of numerous experiments, that the generality of animals produced from a cross between even the most nearly allied species, are either altogether incapable of reproduction, or fertile in so imperfect a degree, that their descendants speedily become entirely sterile. It has been said, that birds alone were unsubjected to this rule, and that hence has arisen the wonderful variety which that beautiful class exhibits. There is no doubt of the occasional

• Tower Menagerie, p. 180.

fertility of their hybrids, as in the case of those mule birds produced between the gold-finch and canary-bird; but as it has not been proved that such union of distinct kinds ever takes place when uncontrolled by the depraving influence of domestication, there is no reason to attribute the origin of any of those species or varieties which are known to exist in a wild state, to such improbable alliance.

It is known that a productive union may take place between animals of different species, provided such species belong to what naturalists call the same natural family. Thus, the horse and the ass, the ass and the zebra, the quagga and the mare, when paired together, produce young. It is probable, however, that all these unions are so far forced and unnatural, that they never take place except through the influence of man, when domestication, and the numerous changes consequent upon it, have altered or impaired their natural instincts; for it has been observed, that however education may perfect certain special qualities which man has the art to render subservient to his own convenience, yet a more extended view of the effects of domestication will convince us, that it is almost always to the disadvantage of their natural capacities that the brute creation are made to borrow the mask of human intelligence.

Buffon appears to have adopted from Ray an axiom which many now regard as inaccurate and artificial, but which he made use of to determine the identity of animal species, viz. "Any two animals that can procreate together, and whose issue can also procreate, are specifically the same." In this, however, it has been observed, that he contradicts himself, by afterwards admitting that the sheep and goat are of different species, at the same time that he asserts that the he-goat and the ewe produce a mixed breed, which continue fertile for ever. Dr John Hunter, however, (a great authority), was also of opinion that the true distinction between different species of animals must ultimately be gathered from their incapacity of propagating with each other an offspring capable of again continuing the kind; thus, the horse and ass beget a mule, capable of copulation, but incapable of begetting or producing offspring. The accident of a mule breeding, according to the same authority, even if it were proved, would only show, that as many perfect animals of true

VOL. II. NO. VII.

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species and distinct sexes are incapable of breeding at all, thus showing that Nature, even in her greatest perfection, sometimes deviates from general principles, so it may occasionally happen that a mule shall breed from the circumstance of its being monster respecting mules."

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2d, Of Mules in particular.-Regarding these we have little else to say, than that they are more easily bred between the jack-ass and the mare, than between the stallion and the she-ass. The common mule is highly esteemed as a beast of burden in rugged or precipitous countries, and is more valuable than either the horse or the ass for travelling over wild and mountainous regions. They are used in Spain, not only very generally for the ordinary purposes of commerce and rural economy, but by people of the highest rank; and they frequently bring a price in that country of fifty or sixty guineas each. They are celebrated for the sagacious manner in which they convey men and goods in safety through the most dangerous passes of the mountains.

ON AN IMPROVED USE OF POTATOES. By JOHN MACINNES, Esq. of Auchinreoch and Woodburn.

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Of all esculent roots the potato is undoubtedly the best entitled to our careful cultivation. Whether we regard it as the food of man or of beast, its excellent adaptation to almost every variety of palate and of constitution induces us to recognize it as one of the very first boons of Providence. When we consider that, either as smoking in solitary importance on the labourer's humble board, or as taking its customary place among the viands of the great, the potato is universally welcome, it can excite no wonder should it have always claimed the particular attention of agricultural experimentalists. Yet to me it seems truly surprising, after all that has been said and written on a subject of such national importance, that this most useful of all known roots should at this day be permitted to retain so low a rank in the science of economics.

True it is, that the uses to which it is applied are numerous, and the benefits derived from such applications duly appreciated,

but still it is apprehended that, in reference to its principal use, that of human diet, much ignorance continues to exist. Now, that at a period when public spirit, as well as private philanthropy, have done, and are doing, so much for the poor and the destitute,-when soup-kitchens and cheap-bread associations, and every plan which humanity can possibly dictate or devise for the alleviation of suffering and want, are adopted, it really does astonish me that the potato has not hitherto been more serviceably operated upon by a discerning community.

This surely proceeds not from any scarcity of the article itself, from its high price, or admitted insufficiency for purposes of wholesome repast: none of these reasons are available. I must then be allowed to impute the apparent apathy manifested respecting the extension of potato manufacture to the yet undis covered capabilities of this nutritious root.

To this conclusion I am led, owing to several experiments with which I have recently been occupied. These experiments were, indeed, simple enough; but as momentous results are sometimes deduced from principles the least complicated, and as it seems to me that the matter to which I allude is one of paramount interest to society in general, I beg to submit the following brief detail to the consideration of my fellow-subscribers and readers of this useful publication.

During a residence of thirty years in the West Indies, I often thought of the immense advantage that would accrue to our colonies, if rendered independent of America for Negro food.

It occurred to me, that, by manufacturing the cassada root into tapioca, similar to what is done in the Brazils, an adequate substitute might be procured for rice. Impelled by this idea, I embraced a few leisure hours for making the experiment, and I found it completely answered my anticipations. No other emotion was thence excited but that of surprise, on reflecting that such a profitable use of the cassada had been so long and so unaccountably neglected.

This tuberous root, as is well known to those who frequent the Tropics, is fibrous and juicy, and in its shape and properties not unlike the carrot or parsnip. In converting the cassada into tapioca, it must be nicely washed, grated and fired.

Now, as similar causes necessarily produce similar effects, it repeatedly and forcibly suggested itself to my mind, while inspecting this process, that the potato might be treated in the same manner, and with equal consequences. On my return to Europe, I embraced an early opportunity of putting the idea into practice. The mode in which it was so done, together with its issue, I now proceed to describe.

As in the case of the cassada, the potatoes selected for the experiment are thoroughly washed, after which they are grated in a machine constructed for the purpose. The parts thus reduced or grated fall into a vessel placed underneath. From this vessel they are removed, and strained into a tub. On the juice being well expressed for the first time, the fibres are set apart, and cold clean water is thrown over them. These fibres are again put through the same strainer, till the whole of the substance is collected, when they are finally cast aside. On this being done, the contents of the tub, now in a state of mucilage or starch, are allowed to settle. A reasonable interval being suffered to elapse, the old water is poured gently off, and fresh water supplied. After this process of fining and washing, the blanched matter is worked through a smaller strainer.

As formerly, the offals are separated. The starch becomes now much whiter; still fresh water is abundantly dashed over it. When by frequent ablution the surface of this vegetable mass is rendered quite smooth and clean, it is filtrated a third and last time.

The strainer now used is of very fine texture, so that no improper or accidental admixture may interfere. As soon as the starch, thus purified, has firmly subsided, it is spread on a board, and exposed to the open air. The damp speedily evaporates, on which it is, as a security for cleanliness, put through

a sieve.

A large circular pan is now procured, and set upon the fire. The farine is gradually put into the pan, till what is conceived to be sufficient for one cooking be supplied. As the natural tendency of the farine, in a warm state, is to adhere to the pan, great care is requisite in constantly turning and stirring it. This is effectually done with a broad flat piece of wood, having a long handle to prevent inconveniency from the heat.