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(whose treatise on the manners and customs of the Germans was written in the first century of the Christian Era) beer was their usual beverage, and from his description, imperfect as it is, there can be no doubt that they understood the method of converting barley into malt. Pliny mentions its use in Spain under the name of Celia and Ceria, and in Gaul under that of Cerevisia or Cervisia. He says:-"The people of Spain in particular brew this liquor so well that it will keep good a long time. So exquisite is the cunning of mankind in gratifying their vicicus appetites, that they have thus invented a method to make water itself produce intoxication."

The Cervisia of Pliny evidently takes its name from Ceres, the Goddess of corn. Plautus calls it Ce, ealis liquor, that is, liquor used at the solemn festival of that goddess. Beer and vinegar were the ordinary beverages of the soldiers under Julius Cæsar. From them the Britons are supposed to have learnt the art of brewing. Beer being so suitable to the climate of Britain, and so easily made by an agricultural people with plenty of corn, it was gladly welcomed and soon became the favourite beverage. After the departure of the Romans from Britain, the Saxons subdued the natives and learned from them the art of brewing.

MALT LIQUORS OF ABORIGINAL RACES.

Dr. H. Mann tells us that the Kaffre races of South Africa have made for ages, and still make, a fermented drink like beer from the seed of the millet (Sorghum vulgare), which is subjected to a process of malting in all essential particulars identical with our own. The natives of Nubia, Abyssinia, and other parts of Africa, also make an intoxicating drink of great power, called bousa, from the flour of the teff (Poa abyssinica) and from the durrha or millet, much esteemed by the natives, and preferred by many to palm or date wine, the common intoxicating drink in tropical countries. According to Mungo Park, the natives of Africa also make a beverage from the seed of the spiked or eared soft grass (Pennisetum typhoideum). The Russian drink kwass or quass, a thick sour beverage, not unlike bousa, is made of barley and rye flour, mixed with water and fermented. Formerly, the spruce-fir, birch, maple, and ash trees were tapped, and their juice used for beer-making in England, the first two, indeed, up to the last fifty years. Koumiss, the drink of the Tartar race, is fermented mares' milk. The Chinese malt beverage, samshee, is made from rice, and a similar liquor is prepared in Japan also from rice, known as sake, which is almost identical with the Zu, rice beer, of the Angami Nagas (Conf. with Vol. II, 260) and the pachwai of India generally. The Kakhyans prepare their shorú from rice. The Lepchas, Lushais, as well as the Nagas, make a rice beer in which apparently the fermenting agent is spontaneously generated. The hill men of the Simla neighbourhood expose rice or maize water, flavoured with some bitter principle and spices till fermentation sets in. The Burman congee is a beer which the Khyens and Karens also use. In fact, throughout India a crude beer (pachwai) is prepared and was probably known from ancient times (Conf. with the account of Soma, Vol. III., 246-251). The process of manufacture is of the most primitive kind. The ingredients are generally some fermentable substance such as malt from millet (paisht), from rice, barley, wheat, &c., or from the fruits or flowers of certain plants, particularly Mahuá, Bassia latifolia (see Vol I., 406-415); Eugenia Jambolana (see Vol. III., 286); Melia Azadirachta-the Nim tree (see P. 211.); from dates, raisins, or other less important substances (see the article Yeast, Vol. II, 259-260). But by far the most prevalent Indian beverage is tari or toddy made from palm juice, nim or sugar-cane,- see Borassus, Caryota,Cocos, Melia, Phœnix, also the article Narcotics, &c.

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Liquors.

HISTORY.

MALT Liquors.

HISTORY.

History of Brewing

Most of the Indian beverages are flavoured with drugs, often highly pernicious, and they are fermented by various substances (see Vol. II., 259-260). Harmless spices are also frequently added to flavour the liquor, or, as in the case of the Zu beer of the Nagas and the Marwa of Sikkim, a warm infusion from grain is consumed before fermentation has been established (Vol. II., 260). In the majority of cases the infusion is exposed in a warm place, for spontaneous fermentation; but the use of a special ferment, such as the common yeast of brewers and that too preserved in cakes (see Vol. II., 257-260, also Vinegar, Vol. I., 72-77), is not unknown.

HISTORY OF EUROPEAN BREWING IN INDIA.

The history of the manufacture of malt liquors in India, is, to some extent, the history of a series of unsuccessful efforts at establishing an exotic industry, in a country then unfavourably placed for its prosperity as a remunerative enterprise It is only within recent years, as a consequence of the growth of large European communities and the existence of army contracts, given out by Government to the Indian brewers, that the indus try has at last been able to firmly establish itself in this country.

The pioneer brewer in India appears, says Mr. Whymper, to have been a Mr. Henry Bohle, who commenced business at Meerut and Mussoorie in 1825. His attempts were, however, very disappointing, and in 1852 his business passed into the hands of his partner, Mr. John Mackinnon, the founder of the firm of that name now in Mussoorie. It was not, however, till about the year 1870 that success dawned upon the enterprise. In the meantime, between the years 1850 and 1860, several small breweries were opened in hill stations, most of which operated but for a short time and then failed. In fact, it may be said that one only, of the early breweries of Northern India has survived. It was started at Kus sowlie by Captain Bevan, who, in 1854, finding it a fruitless enterprise, disposed of his interest to Mr. Dyer. The concern thereafter passed into the hands of a Company, and subsequently was bought by Mr. Meakin, who still retains an interest in it and has made it a success.

In 1860, a brewery on a more pretentious scale was started by Messrs. Conill & Hay in Simla. The lines on which it proposed to work may be said to have foreshadowed its failure. Even the bricks, which were employed in the construction of the buildings, were imported from England at an enormous cost. Expenditure on other branches of the concern were equally reckless, and the business closed and finally passed into the hands of Mr. Meakin. Balfour (Cyclopædia of India) says that in Southern India Captain Ouchterlony initiated the industry about 1850. He failed, and was followed by Mr. Honeywell, who may be said to have carried on the business ever since. A curious experiment, Mr Whymper tells us, was made at Bangalore not long after, viz., to manufacture beer from imported concentrated wort, but it is probably needless to add that this venture also proved a failure. It would be beside the purpose of the present article to refer to the establishment of each and every brewery in India. Suffice it to say that there are now 25 breweries at work, of which 20 have been established since 1870, and of these 12 have sprang into existence within the past ten years (1879-89). This progress may be still further exemplified by the figures of outturn. In 1881 some 21 breweries were working and these produced 2,448,711 gallons, of which the Commissariat Departments purchased 1,764,927 gallons. During the succeeding eight years (1882-89) the production and Government purchases rose steadily until, in 1889, the figures stood at 5,165,138 made in India and 3,778,295 gallons purchased by Government. In the

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previous year the Government purchases of Indian beer amounted to HISTORY. 4,628,175 gallons.

Of the 25 breweries at work during 1889 the following were the more important:

The Murree Brewery Co., Limited, at Murree (1,148,949 gallons), at Rawalpindi, 205,632 gallons, at Ootacamund (336,558 gallons), at Bangalore (267,408 gallons), with smaller concerns at Quetta and Ceylon: Meakin & Co. at Poona (501,816 gallons), at Kasauli (450,000 gallons), with smaller breweries at Chakrata, Darjiling, Dalhousie, and Ranikhet. Dyer & Co. at Lucknow (340,038 gallons), at Mandalay (232,804 gallons), at Solon (133,272 gallons): Mackinnon & Co. at Mussoorie (183.591 gallons); also the Crown Brewery Co. carrying on business at Mussoorie (411,183 gallons) and the Naini Tal Brewery Co., at Naini Tal. The total outturn for the year was returned at 5,165,138 gallons.

Mr. Whymper, in concluding his historic sketch of Indian breweries, remarks:

"There are few Indian, or Native, breweries in the Mysore State. They are of slight consequence. About 1875 a brewery was started at Bandora near Bombay. The peculiar feature of this establishment was that tidal water was used in brewing. This water was frequently quite salt and the beer was very nauseous; it however kept sound in a most remarkable manThe beer was sold for some time in Bombay.

ner.

"The brewery, which works most satisfactorily, under the most trying conditions to be met with in India, is said to be that at Dapooree, near Bombay. This belongs to Messrs. Meakin & Co. The writer visited this brewery on the 22nd April 1886 The temperature of a well-shaded verandah at 8 that morning was 93°; at noon it was 106°; the brewery office at the same time was 100°. By using a five-ton ice machine as much as possible, the average pitch heats had been about 75° in that month. Nothing had been pitched under 72°. One gyle had to be pitched at 88°, it rose to 101°, at which the attemperators were able to hold it. Beers, brewed under nearly the same unfavourable conditions three months before, were examined and were perfectly sound to the palate. The writer is fully aware this will not receive ready credence in England. The owner, Mr. H. G. Meakin, is an elder brother of the Burton maltsters, and possesses an unusually venturesome spirit which has so far carried with it well-merited success.

"It must not be supposed that all brewers have anything like such unfavourable conditions to contend with as Mr. Meakin has had. The majority of Indian breweries are situated in the mountains of Northern India, or of the Madras Presidency. There is one brewery at Lucknow which has only a very short winter, but still it does have some cold weather, whereas the Dapooree one has none. The breweries in the Northern Hills (as the mountains are always called) have cold winters, some have as much as six months' good brewing weather, and Messrs. Mackinnon are so well situated that they can brew sound beers all the year round. The breweries in the Neilgherry Hills in Madras, and the brewery in the Ceylon Mountains, both being at an elevation of over 6,000 feet, can also brew every day in the year for export trade. The trade of the latter is principally with Lower Burma. Sir Samuel Baker was the pioneer brewer in Ceylon, but it is doubtful if he ever foresaw that Ceylon would eventually have an export beer business. The Murree Brewery Co. purchased the present brewery site from a German firm which did not succeed in brewing to meet the public taste.

"The brewery at Quetta has, perhaps, the most extraordinary climate of all Indian positions, the sun being so intensely hot, even in the winter months, that a brewer has to wear a sun helmet whilst at the same time he

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Liquors.

MATERIALS.

Grain.

90

Materials and Methods

has to clothe himself in a fur-lined coat to protect himself from the biting cold which there is in the shade. Whilst prospecting for a brewery site, the servants of the Company suffered from both sun and from frost-bites. The cold which is occasionally experienced is too great to make it safe to employ much steam power, and although the Company, in the first instance, erected a steam plant, it had to be replaced by the open boiling system; pipes, pumps, and injectors, steam pressure gauges, and blow-off cocks were all frozen up, and burst in the most impartial manner."

MATERIALS AND METHODS OF BREWING.

Few industries can be said to have been more directly benefited by the chemist than that of BREWING. It is by no means the case, however, that all brewers adopt in their entirety the principles enjoined by chemical research. In many minor details they follow empirical laws and claim merit in certain processes, the knowledge of which they alone possess. The main facts of the chemistry of brewing will be found under VinegarAcetum-(Vol. I., 72-77), viz., the transformation of insoluble starch, contained in grain, into soluble saccharine compounds. The methods by which this is accomplished in India and the subsequent fermentation, together with the details of brewing, that can be viewed as in any way peculiar to this country, will be found very briefly detailed below. This subject may be discussed under the headings of the chief materials used, viz., Grain, Hops, Yeast, and Water.

I. THE GRAIN.

Barley is, of course, the grain employed in India. The following account of it is taken from Mr. Whymper's paper: "The barleys used by the Indian brewer are entirely grown on the Peninsula. The breweries in the South imported Persian grain and English malt until very recently, but now northern barleys are carried down and malted at the breweries. The range of Indian barleys is considerable, and the quality varies to a great extent. Grain weighing nearly fifty-two pounds to the bushel is grown as far south as 24° north latitude. The best grain, however, is found about 28° north latitude, in the North-West Provinces, and extreme South Panjáb, where fifty-six pounds weight to the bushel is procurable. In Northern India a curious custom prevails of cutting the whole crop down to the ground when about to throw into ear. Cattle are fed on the green stuff so cut, and the barley is allowed to grow again, and, strange to say, it does not seem very much worse for this treatment. In the hills in Madras two crops a year are grown, but the grain is hardly ever allowed to ripen properly, and, consequently, occasions malting difficulties. Barley has been grown in Ceylon and used in brewing, but it is not likely to be permanently grown there, not being a sufficiently valuable crop. All Indian barleys require more warmth and moisture in malting, especially if grown on irrigated soil, than European barleys. Maltsters in England have complained of Indian barleys not germinating freely. It is open to question whether they have sufficiently allowed for the fact that they are dealing with grain grown under totally different conditions to that which they have been usually accustomed to malt. It should be remembered that Indian barley which would find its way to Europe is seed from an almost semi-tropical plant, and naturally requires much more warmth and coddling than English barley. It should be kept up to 60° in the cistern and kept thick on floors. It will not be injured by warmth when growing. The great drawback to its use is the large quantity of weevil found in some samples. The Indian crop is cut at varying dates, according to latitude, from March to May. The hot weather then sets in

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Grain.

and the grain undergoes a hot summer season and several months of mon- MATERIALS. soon weather before it is malted. The contrary holds gcod in England, where barley after harvesting is stored in cold weather until required for malting. The spread of weevil in Indian samples is thus very understandable. Natives believe that weevil will never be found in old buildings to the same extent as if stored in new granaries, and they attribute this entirely to the dampness of all new buildings. The writer believes there is som thing in this view, from facts which have fallen under his notice. There can be no doubt that the quantity of weevil can be minimised by shipments being made to England in June and July, and by great care being (xercised in storing the grain in very dry places. Sun kills weevil."

Mr. Whymper has obligingly furnished for this work the following additional facts which in some respects supplement the passage quoted :"Indian Barley, from growing in a warmer and drier climate than in Englard, requires more warmth in the malting process and less water than in England. Generally speaking, Indian barleys germinate more freely_than English, French, or Belgian. I do not know of any other difference. There is no doubt Indian grain would be improved if zemindars could be induced not to cut the crop down for green fodder.

"Chevalier barley seed was given away freely by the Murree Brewery Co., in the Hazara District about 1870 and in the Nilgiris in 1887-88, but with poor results. The following localities produce very good malting barleys :-Hazára, Ludhiána, Delhi, Rewari, Fazilka in the Pánjab; AĬ. lahabad, Mirzapur in the North-West Provinces; but ordinarily good barley can be procured almost anywhere in the Panjab and North-West Provinces, and in parts of Rajputána. Bombay and Madras Presidency Breweries are supplied from the North. Indian Barley varies in weight from 46 to 561b per bushel.”

The barleys of the Panjáb and North-West Provinces are fairly well adapted for brewing purposes, but it is generally found that the percentage of "extract," as compared with English grain, is below the mark. This has been traced to many causes :-Poor seed, unfavourable soil, the objectionable practice of preserving the grain in cow-dung, cutting down the crop for green fodder, and causing it to spring again and yield its grain, exposure of the grain to severe atmospheric changes, carefess handling in packing and transit; these and many other defects tend to lower the value of Indian barley for the maltster. But perhaps the most pernicious practice of all is traceable to the middleman, viz., the adulteration of new grain with old, the mixture being sold as fresh stock. When this is done, the brewer has no end of trouble and often heavy pecuniary loss owing to irregularity in germination. In concluding these remarks regarding barley suitable for brewing, the following useful passage from Spons' Encyclopædia may be quoted as giving the English experience:-"The selection of the barley used by the brewer calls for the exercise of much skill and judgment; unless the quality be of the very best, it is impossible to obtain good malt, and without good malt, it is useless to attempt to make good beer. A practised brewer can judge of the quality of his barley by its appearance. The heaviest, if in good condition, is always the best, the grains should be plump, and of a pale-yellow colour; they should have a thin skin, and a free, chalky frac

ture.

That which has been grown in a light soil and harvested early, is also preferable. It is of much importance to the malster that barley be lodged in the stack for a few weeks before being thrashed, in order to allow the moisture from the soil to dry off before it comes into his hands. If this is done, the operation of drying in the kiln is avoided. In moist districts, however, where the grain never gets thoroughly dried, this process must

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