References.-Kurs, For. Fl. Burm., II., 403; Gamble, Man. Timb., 365. Habitat.-A large evergreen tree, found in the forests of Sikkim at altitudes between 2,000 and 6,000 feet. It is common also in the forests of the Khásia hills and of Martaban, and is distributed to Java. Gum.-It yields a gum, which is used as size in paper manufacture (Gamble). Structure of the Wood.-White and soft. Weight 26 per cubic foot. OSYRIS, Linn.; Gen. Pl., III., 227. Osyris arborea, Wall.; Fl. Br. Ind., V., 232; Wight, Ic., t. 1853; Syn.-O. WIGHTIANA, Wall. O. NEPALENSIS, Don. Habitat. A glabrous shrub or small tree occurring in the Sub-tropical Medicine.-The infusion of the LEAVES has powerful emetic qualities. Domestic.-Dr. Royle mentions that in Kumáon the LEAVES of Osyris arborea are used as a substitute for tea, and this is probably the Green Tea of Bischar (Bisháhr) which Moorcroft (Travels, I., 352) describes as being imported into Ladak under the name of Maun or Bischar Tea, the produce of a shrub growing on a dry soil, especially about Jhagul between Rampur and Seran. The leaves are gathered from July to November, and, after infusion in hot water, are rubbed and dried in the sun. The first infusion is reddish in colour and is reckoned nauseating : the second, which is used, is yellowish green. Writing of the use of these leaves as a substitute for tea, Dr. Watt, in his Selections from the Records of the Government of India, Revenue and Agricultural Department, says :-"The leaves smell remarkably like tea, when specially prepared; but unfortunately the infusion has powerful emetic properties which require long usage to conquer. Dr. Royle suggested that experiments should be made in the cultivation of the plant, in order to discover if the emetic property could be removed by careful cultivation. The discovery of tea proper in Assam, and the greatly extended cultivation of that plant, have left the matter of Osyris tea in the position in which it was at the beginning of the present century, when it first attracted the attention of the public. The plant is very common around Simla. It is closely allied to sandalwood, but seems to possess no properties that would justify its cultivation, since tea can be produced quite as cheap. [ Pt. II. Otters. The Otters, which belong to the Sub-family LUTRINA, constitute the last sub-division of the MUSTELIDE. They form a group, the different species of which are externally very difficult of discrimination, but are readily determined by the shape of their skulls. OTTERS. 529 530 DOMESTIC. 531 532 DOMESTIC. 533 534 DOMESTIC. 535 Skin. 536 The Common Otter. Lutra aureobrunnea, Hodgson; Blanford, Mammalia in Fauna of Br. No other naturalist except Hodgson has met with this species, but it is [185 L. ellioti, Anderson; Blanford, Mammalia in Fauna of Br. Ind., Pt. Ï., Syn.-L. MONTICOLA, Hodgson; L. TARAIYENSIS, Blyth; L. NAIR, Cantor, Habitat. — This species also is found throughout India. It is distin guished from L. vulgaris by the smaller size of the animal, the greater comparative breadth of its skull, and its coarser shorter hair. Domestic.-Probably this species also is used by fishermen in a similar manner to the common otter (q.v.). Its fur is not so valuable. [Pt. 1., 187. L. leptonyx, Horsfield; Blanford, Mammalia in Fauna of Br. Ind., THE CLAWLESS OTTER. Syn.-L. INDIGITATA, Hodgson; AONYX LEPTONYX, Cantor. The skull is much shorter than in other Indian forms. The claws are rudimentary, sometimes altogether wanting; the third and fourth toes on all feet considerably longer than the others. Habitat. This species inhabits the Himálaya, generally at low elevations; it is found also in Lower Bengal (being common near Calcutta) in Assam, Burma, and at low elevations on the Nilgiris in Madras Presidency. Domestic.-This animal, together with the other species, is kept tame by the fishermen in Lower Bengal. [Pt. I., 182. L. vulgaris, Erxleben; Blanford, Mammalia in Fauna of Br. Ind., Syn.-L. NAIR, F. Cuv.; Jerdon partim; L. INDICA, Gray. Vern.-Ud, ud bildo, pani kutta, HIND.; Sag-i-al, PB.; Lad, pan-manjar, References. -Ferdon, Mam. Ind., 86; Sterndale, Mam. Ind., 150; Forbes Watson, Ind. Survey of India, 382; Encyc. Brit., XVIII., 69. Habitat. The common otter is found throughout the Palæ-arctic region, extending into the North-West Himálaya. The Indian form commonly known as L. nair appears to occur over the whole of India and Ceylon. Domestic.-Otters are easily tamed when captured young. L. vulgaris is very commonly semi-domesticated by the fishermen in various parts of India, who employ the members of this and other species to drive fish into their nets. On the Indus they are found specially serviceable in porpoise catching. The fishing otters are kept on the prow of the boat and slipped like dogs when required. The SKIN of this species is the one most valued by furriers. It is rufous and beautifully soft. In India, Baden Powell says, it is much prized for making caps and for poshtíns or fur jackets. Form of Dragon's Blood. (W. R. Clark.) OXALIS. OUGEINIA, Benth.; Gen. Pl., I., 518. [1.391; LEGUMINOSÆ. Ougeinia dalbergioides, Benth.; Fl. Br. Ind., IÏ., 161; Wight, Ic., Syn.-DALBERGIA OUGEINENSIS, Roxb. Vern.-Sándan, asainda, tinnas, timsa, HIND.; Tinis, BENG.; Band- References.-Roxb., Fl. Ind., Ed. C.B.C., 532; Brandis, For. Fl., 146; Beddome, Fl. Sylv., t. 36; Gamble, Man. Timb., 119; Dalz. & Gibs., Bomb. Fl., 78; Stewart, Pb. Pl., 72; Rev. A. Campbell, Rept. Econ. Pl., Chutia Nagpur, No. 7513; Sir W. Elliot, Fl. Andhr., 111, 133, 177; U. C. Dutt, Mat. Med. Hindus, 321; Birdwood, Bomb. Prod., 328; Baden Powell, Pb. Pr., 577: Drury, U. Pl. Ind., 176; Atkinson, Him. Dist. (X., N.-W. P. Gas), 308; Useful Pl. Bomb. (XXV., Bomb. Gas.), 58, 272, 278, 393; For. Adm. Rep., Chutia Nagpur, 1885, 6, 29; Man. Madras Adm., I., 313: Report on Gums & Resinous Substances of India, 24, 33, 35; Settlement Reports Central Provinces, Chindwara, 110; Seonee, 10; Baitool, 127; Gazetteers :-Bombay, VII., 35 XIII., 27; XV., 33; XVI., 18; Panjab, Gurdaspur, 53; N.-W. P., I., 88; IV., lxx.; Ind. Forester, 1., 275; III., 23; IV., 292, 322; VIII., 101, 114, 116, 129, 388, 412, 414, 416, X., 61, 222, 325; XI., 367; XII., 188 (xxii.); XIII., 120, 127; XIV., 147, 151; Balfour, Cyclop. Ind., I., 878. Habitat. A moderate-sized deciduous tree, under certain circumstances gregarious, found chiefly in the intermediate zone of the sub-Himálayan tract from the Sutlej to the Tísta, ascending to 5,000 feet, but distributed also to Central India and the west coast. Gum.-It yields an astringent red GUM, very similar to Dragon's Blood. Medicine. The BARK when incised furnishes a kino-like exudation, which is used in cases of dysentery and diarrhoea (Lisboa). According to Campbell (Econ. Prod., Chutia Nagpur), a decoction of the bark is given among the hill tribes, when the urine is high coloured. In the Central Provinces the bark is said to be used as a febrifuge. Fodder. The LEAVES appear after the blossoms, and are in summer given as fodder to cattle, for which purpose the branches are lopped off. Structure of the Wood.-Sapwood small, heartwood mottled, lightbrown, sometimes reddish-brown, hard, close-grained, tough, and durable. It takes a beautiful polish. Weight 55 to 60lb per cubic foot. It is a very valuable timber, specially those specimens that grow on the Godavery, but is comparatively rare in these parts. The tree, however, is a small one, and it is difficult to obtain planks over nine inches broad (Brandis, Gamble, Balfour). Domestic.-The wood is used for agricultural implements, carriage poles, wheels, and furniture, also for building purposes (Gamble). The bark is astringent, and is employed to poison fish, for which purpose many trees are stripped of their bark (Lisboa). Ovis, see Sheep; Vol. VI., Pt. II. OXALIS, Linn.: Gen. Pl., I., 276. A genus of acid herbs, consisting of over 200 species, which are chiefly Tropical and Temperate South American and South African. Three species are indigenous to the Indian Peninsula ; but practically only one of these is recognised as of economic value. 537 GUM. 538 MEDICINE. Bark. 539 FODDER. Leaves. 540 TIMBER. 541 DOMESTIC. Wood. 542 Bark. 543 544 OXALIS corniculata. The Indian Sorrel. 545 Oxalis acetosella, Linn.; Fl. Br. Ind., I., 436; GERANIACEE. THE COMMON WOOD SORrel. MEDICINE. 546 547 MEDICINE. 548 References.-Stewart, Pb. Pl., 37; Agri.-Horti. Soc., Ind., Journ., XIV., 45; Gaz., N.-W. Prov., X., 307; Smith, Econ. Dict., 385; Kew Off. Guide to the Mus. of Ec. Bot., 16. Habitat. An herb found all over the Temperate Himálaya from Kashmír to Sikkim, at altitudes between 8,000 and 12,000 feet, and distributed to Europe, North Asia, North Africa, and North America. Medicine. Although at one time this found a place in the London Pharmacopoeia, yet in India no account appears to exist of any supposed medicinal virtues inherent in this species. In Europe, it was introduced into the Pharmacopoeia as a refrigerant in fever, and as an antiscorbutic in scurvy, but has now fallen into disuse. O. corniculata, Linn.; Fl. Br. Ind., I., 436; Wight, Ic., t. 18. Syn.-O. REPENS, Thunb.; O. pusilla, Salisb. References.- Roxb., Fl. Ind., Ed. C.B.C., 389; Voigt, Hort. Sub. Cal., Habitat. A very variable, caulescent weed, found abundantly throughout the warmer parts of India and Ceylon, ascending the Himalaya to 7,000 feet. It is found very frequently in cultivated places or near human dwellings. In distribution it is cosmopolitan. Medicine.-The LEAVES are considered cooling, refrigerant, stomach c, and antiscorbutic. Various preparations, in which this plant forms a principal ingredient, are much esteemed in the treatment of fevers, dysentery, and scurvy. A ghrita (v. Ghí, Vol. III., 495), prepared from the fresh juice of Oxalis corniculata, and the leaves of the same plant reduced to a paste, together with ghi and curdled milk, is recommended by Hindu physicians as a useful medicine in diarrhoea, dysentery, prolapsus of the rectum, tympanitis, piles, and difficult micturition. The fresh juice of the leaves is given to relieve the intoxication produced by Datura (U. C. Dutt). The fresh leaves made into a curry are said to improve the appetite and digestion of dyspeptic patients (Moodeen Sheriff). Bruised with or without water, they are formed into a poultice and applied over inflamed parts, by which means, Moodeen Sheriff says, "great cold is produced, and pain and other inflammatory symptoms are relieved." In the Konkan the plant is rubbed down with water, boiled, and the juice of white onions added. This mixture is applied to the head in bilious headaches. Baden Powell and also Atkinson mention its almost universal use in the North-West Provinces and the Panjáb as a specific applied externally for the removal of warts. Baden Powell at the same time mentions the use of the juice as an application for the removal of opacities of the cornea. SPECIAL OPINIONS.-§ "The leaves are useful in dysentery of children" (Assistant Surgeon N. L. Ghose, Bankipore). Juice of the leaves is used as an antiscorbutic " (Surgeon A. Č. Mukherji, Noakhaly). "Antiscorbutic, stomachic; leaf and whole plant are used fresh as a salad" Apothecary T. Ward, Madanapalle, Allahabad). "The juice of the leaves is used in dysentery, also as dentifrice and to improve foul breath" (Civil Surgeon 7. H. Thornton, B.A., M.B., Monghyr)." Expressed juice of the leaves made into a sherbet with a little sugar, often prescribed in dysentery to allay thirst" (Civil Surgeon S. M. Shircore, Moorshedabad). "Cooling and useful in biliousness (Assistant Surgeon S. C. Bhattacharji, Chanda, Central Provinces). Food.-In some parts of the country it is eaten both raw as a salad and cooked as a POT-HERB, particularly in times of drought when its refrigerant qualities are said to be very grateful to the consumers. In Madras, it is cultivated as a vegetable and sold to the natives especially Muhammadans, who are very fond of it (Moodeen Sheriff). At Poona, during the famine of 1877-78, the seeds were eagerly sought after and eaten by the poorer classes. Domestic. The JUICE is useful in removing stains of iron mould. OXEN, BUFFALOES & ALLIED SPECIES OF BOVINE ANIMALS. The sub-family BOVINE, one of the great divisions of the tribe of Ruminants, is broken up by naturalists into three groups :-(1) the BISONTINE to which belongs the Yak (Poephagus grunniens) of Central Asia; (2), the TAURINE, sub-divided by Blyth into (a) Zebus, a genus represented by the humped domestic cattle of India, (6) Taurus, the humpless cattle with cylindrical horns, represented by the cattle of Europe, (y) Gavaeus, humpless cattle with somewhat flattened horns, represented by the Gaur of India and South-Eastern Asia; (3), the great group of Bovine known as the BUBALINE, which is represented by the varieties of the domestic buffalo of India (Bubalus bos) and the wild buffalo (Bubalus arni). Here, however, it has been thought expedient to follow the usual practice in this work, namely, to describe shortly the different species of BOVINE indigenous to India, in their alphabetical order, and to conclude with a general article on the subject of Oxen. Bos indicus. THE INDIAN ZEBU OR HUMPED OX. References. Ferdon, Mam. Ind., 301; Murray, Vertebrate Zool. Sind, Habitat. The genus Zebu, containing the humped cattle of India, comprises not only the several varieties of domestic cattle, but also others that have run wild. In the really feral state, the Indian Zebu is probably extinct. On the seacoast, near Nellore in the Carnatic, there is a herd of cattle that have run wild for many years; but they are merely escapes from the domestic state, and although in several other places also there are small herds of apparently wild cattle, no specimens of the real wild Zebu seem now to exist. Humped cattle are found in the greatest perfection in India, but they extend eastwards to Japan, and westward to the Niger in Africa. Characters.-Zebus differ from the European domestic cattle not only OXEN. MEDICINE. FOOD. ot-herb. 549 DOMESTIC. Juice. 550 551 552 Characters. 553 |