system has worked very badly, because, first, the government of the Agent has not been for the benefit of the governed but for the benefit of the governor, and, second, it has been aimed, not to prepare the Indian for self-government, but to keep him in tutelage. But where the Agent has been honest, capable, and progressive, the results have been wholly admirable. The next step in the evolution of government is the development of an aristocracy. This aristocracy is often far from absolutely excellent; but it possesses certain elements of courage, self-control, and intelligence which make it superior to the average. It puts limits on the power of the autocrat; it demands better protection for its own rights, if not for the rights of the people; it wrests from a King John a Magna Charta. Under its influence political power is somewhat more diffused and government is somewhat more equable than under the autocracy. The class below the nobles are awakened and stimulated by their example; they in turn limit the power of the nobles, and in turn appeal to the still lower classes to aid them in securing a more equal distribution of justice-that is, a more general and equable protection of person, property, reputation, the family, and liberty. The people under Simon de Montfort demand and secure a representation in the House of Commons. are the rights of man, what are the privileges of class, what are the distinctions between the two, and what the functions and therefore what the powers of government, become matters of debate, each side enforcing its own interests with reasons, and sometimes with courageous battle. The privileges of the few give way gradually to the interests of the many, and at length the simple principle that governments exist for the benefit of the governed, and that their function is primarily the protection of the fundamental rights of man and of all men, is wrought into the consciousness of the people. Then, and not till then, is the community ready for a government founded on the will of the majority. What Autocracy is the best government for a people in its early childhood; oligarchy or aristocracy for a people in its teens; democracy for a people in its manhood. What happens when a people is suddenly transplanted from autocratic government to democratic government, without any intervening preparation, is illustrated tragically by the French Revolution, and less tragically by the carpetbag government in the South. That person, property, reputation, the family, and liberty are better protected in Egypt under an autocracy than they would be by a government formed and administered by the fellaheen will hardly be doubted by any. Whether these fundamental rights will be better protected in Cuba under an independent democracy, or in Porto Rico under a mixed government, partly democratic, partly autocratic, we shall soon know. But while there is no one form of government which is absolutely right and no one form of government which is absolutely best for all peoples and under all circumstances, there is one principle of government which is the ultimate principle, and to which all history is slowly but surely conducting the peoples. That principle for it is a principle rather than a form-is self-government. Government is the control of a part of the community by another part of the community; it may be by a king, by an oligarchy, by an aristocracy, by a vote of seven million voters to which the opposing six million three hundred thousand voters submit, but in any case it is the control of a part by a part. It is clear that the government is best when the best control and the less competent and virtuous are controlled. But it is not less evident that the supreme and ultimate government is that in which the best in each man controls the inferior in each man. This is self-government; and the more nearly any community approaches self-government, the more nearly it ap proaches the ultimate goal of all political organization. The end of government is mutual protection against injustice. But when the people have become so educated that no one wishes to do his neighbor an injustice, the supreme end of government has been reached, because there is no longer any need of mutual protection; and when public sentiment has been so educated and developed that even men who would do an injustice to a fellow-man dare not do it, not because they fear a punishment forcibly administered, but because they fear the judgment and condemnation of their fellow-men, the end of government is approximated. For the object of all government is to destroy the necessity of any government, by develop ing such a public conscience that no other force than that of conscience will be needed to protect the rights of man. But it is also evident that a govern ment which proposes to rest on the united conscience and united judgment of a great body of men as its means of enforcing justice, or, better, as a means of dispensing with all external enforcement of justice, must have in the community a great number of individual men whose judgment and conscience have been so educated. A great body of men who are unable to govern themselves, either because they lack the judgment or the conscience, cannot constitute a community which can govern itself. Self-government is not an assumption on which we are to start in framing a government; it is the goal which we are to reach by means of government. It is the terminus ad quem, not the termiuus a quo. An educative preparation is necessary for self-government in the race as in the individual. To thrust a childlike people out into the world and expect them to provide for and protect themselves without any previous training is as unwise, not to say as cruel, as it would be to thrust the little children out from a home and expect them to take care of themselves. It is sometimes asked whether a despotic government has ever prepared a people for freedom. The answer is that no people have ever been prepared for freedom except by a despotic government. The Napoleonic Empire was a necessary preparation for the French Republic. The suddenly liberated people had to learn to obey before they could learn to command. A long line of kings, beginning with William the Conqueror and ending with Charles I., laid in England the foundation for her constitutional liberties. Our own preparation was made in the same school, and a post-graduate education was added in colonial government under an English autocratic authority. No people in the history of the world have ever passed directly and without intervening education from a primitive or tribal condition of government to a self-governing democracy which adequately protected person, prop erty, reputation, the family, and liberty, and it is safe to assume that no people ever will. The question which confronts self-governing countries in this beginning of the twentieth century is, Shall we leave races just emerging from childhood to acquire capacity for self-government through the long and dismal processes which have been necessary in our case, or shall we serve as their guardians and tutors, protecting their rights and educating their judgments and their consciences until they are able to frame their own mutual protective associations—that is, to constitute and administer without aid their own governments ? To sum up in a paragraph the conclusions of this and the preceding article: Government is a mutually protective association; it grows out of the instinct of men to protect their own rights and the rights of their neighbors; it is a just and a free government when it adequately protects those rights; it is neither a just nor a free government if it does not adequately protect those rights. The possession of the powers of government gives to those who possess such powers the responsibility of determining when it is right to interfere in order to prevent injustice. Man is born under government, and he is to be subject to that government, unless it fails to fulfill the functions of government; if it does so fail, and he can find adequate remedy for himself and his fellows neither by submission, protest, nor migration, the right of revolution exists; because the same right to organize for self-protection in government exists to overthrow the government when it becomes an instrument of oppression, not of protection. There is no absolutely best form of government; that is the best form of government which, in any stage of the world, in any age of human development, best secures human rights; but the ultimate form of government, toward which history is gradually conducting the human race, is that form in which every man governs himself, and therefore all men partake in the common functions of government. But such self-government in the community, as in the individual, is a terminus ad quem, not a terminus a quo; that is, it is a result to be reached by means of government, not a foundation to be assumed on which government can be built. B HON. JOHN G. MILBURN President of the Exposition. The Builders of the Exposition Y the time this issue of The Outlook reaches its readers, the formal opening of the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo will have occurred; and at this writing it seems certain that the great Exposition will be in a state of completeness far in advance of those at Philadelphia, Chicago, and Paris on the days set for their opening. In the June Magazine Number of The Outlook the attempt will be made to furnish our readers with some adequate idea of the Exposition in its picturesque and significant aspects, by description and through illustration. Meanwhile we present here the portraits of the men who have made it possible that the Pan-American Exposition should be what it is. The President of the Exposition, the Hon. John G. Milburn, is, in the highest and truest sense of the word, a representative man; one who stands in the mind of the public for the best things in personal and professional life. Mr. Milburn was born in England and educated in English schools, came to this country as a young man, studied law at Batavia in this State, was admitted to the bar in 1874, and since that time has practiced his profession with steadily increasing success in the city of Buffalo, where he has come to hold a foremost position. He is a man of large legal attainments, whose scholarship is highly respected as well as widely known in his own profession. He is a man of general culture, a student of literature, a speaker of dignity and unusual charm-his voice, manner, intonation, and spoken style indicating the culture of his mind and tastes. There is about him the ripeness which comes not only from knowledge, but from contact with the best in thought and life. He is a man of very agreeable personality, who, by his address, his courtesy, and his dignity, no less than by his ability, is pre-eminently fitted to discharge the delicate and difficult duties imposed upon him by the presidency of the Exposition. As to the other officers of the Exposition, it need only be said that Mr. Buchanan, Director-General, has worked with assiduity and with extraordinary executive power to bring into unison and into a complete and perfect result the different elements which properly pertain to such a great undertaking; while to the Chairman of the Architects, Mr. Carrere, to Mr. Coffin, the Director of Fine Arts, and to Mr. Turner, the Director of Color, are to be ascribed the notable artistic effect which will make this exposition in its way as individual and unique as was the Chicago Exposition in quite a different manner. As we have already pointed out, the Pan-American Exposition differs from the great fairs held at Philadelphia, Chicago, and Paris, in that it is designed primarily to celebrate and record American achievement, American industry, and American art. That resolution of Congress was justified which declared that "such an Exhibition would undoubtedly be of vast benefit to the commercial interests of the countries of North, South, and Central America." TO SO LEAVE A PLACE THAT AT THE VERY LAST MOMENT ONE MAY GAZE ON YOUR FACE The Kitchen-Garden SINGIN By Laura Winnington After an exercise with the trays, in which the children, bending first to the right and then to the left, sing, "We pass the tray like this, we pass the tray like that, Try to hold it, always hold it, very, very flat," a march is played, and they file out, each stopping at the door to bow and say goodmorning to a little maid who remains at the head of one of the tables and carefully bows back to each, and the KitchenGarden lesson is over. It may seem a simple thing, this lesson in table-setting to twenty-four missionschool children, but from the seed planted in the kitchen-garden has sprung the present movement for industrial education, the demand that in every school studying from books shall be supplemented by the training of eye and hand. INGING a merry song about "helping mother," twenty-four little girls in white caps and aprons come trooping into a room where by each one's chair at two long tables stand two small wooden boxes on a round wooden tray. At chords struck on the piano the children seat themselves, push in their chairs, and take off the lids of the boxes. Adainty set of doll's dishes are inside-glasses and knives and forks and little plates, and even napkins rolled up in their rings. The children take out the dishes while the piano is played softly to cover any noise of rattling. The child who replies to the question, "What is the first thing to be put on the table?" "Knives and forks," learns better as little tablecloths The incorporators of the first kitchenare spread on the round trays, and the garden formed in 1880 the Kitchen-Garchildren learn how to set a breakfast-table, den Association, to promote the teaching giving rhyming answers to the questions of "Industrial Domestic Arts," and in how the forks should be laid, where the its first season enrolled eighty active glasses should stand, and how the coffee- members from different cities, supervised pot should be heated. Then follows the the instruction of nine hundred and ninety occupation of clearing the table, with children in and near New York, and songs about how the dishes are to be formed classes in the West and South. washed and wiped and put away. One Four years later the Kitchen Garden Assocan see how much more skillfully and hap- ciation, realizing that the field in which pily those simple things will be done in it had begun must be more and more all after life, from their early association widely extended, reorganized as the Induswith cheer and song and gay companions. trial Education Association. To the work |