the emoluments connected with some of them being so small as to be scarcely more than nominal. The annual assemblies for electing these local representatives are constituted in a very peculiar manner. Every five houses have the election of one deputy for the communal assembly, and these again choose a delegate for the district assemblies, in the proportion of one man to every ten houses. These representatives elect their own parish officers and discuss and decide all parish affairs, such as the division of the fields, the arrangement of the tenancies, the proper distribution of the taxes, the audit of accounts, the supervision of the recruiting business, the admittance of new members into the commune, petitions and complaints to the Tsar and the ministry, and similar matters. As a rule, these communal assemblies take place regularly three times a year; but they may be called more frequently if business of importance requires it. In conjunction with these assemblies are village tribunals, consisting of two elected members of the commune called 'conscience people.' Injuries and offences of every kind, as well as disputes relating to property, not involving more than five roubles, come under the jurisdiction of these popular tribunals.

The nobles of the empire possess a representation of their own, due to Catherine II. An imperial patent, dated April 21, 1785, bestowed on them an organic constitution upon the German model, borrowed principally from the Baltic provinces. According to this constitution, the nobles living in each province form a corporation under an elected president, or marshal, to whom is joined a government commissioner. The members of this corporation assemble at regular intervals of three years, with liberty to deliberate on any subject they choose, and with the special privilege that the governor of the province, who otherwise rules supreme, shall never be present at their meetings. These parliamentary bodies have their own seals, archives, secretaries, treasuries, and permanent committees, the latter of which unite with deputies of the towns to examine the estimates and allotment of contributions to be made by the country. The extensive rights and privileges enjoyed by these states-general are said to be not always exercised in the best possible manner. The more educated members of the Russian nobility have till lately taken scarcely any part in the election and deliberations of the assemblies, and the whole power has fallen, therefore, into the hands of the very imperfectly instructed landowners in the country. The chief object of all their political actions has been to uphold the privileges and rights of their class. These privileges are of far greater extent than those possessed by any other class in the empire. The Russian nobleman can only be deprived of his life, property, and honour, by judgment of law; he can only be tried by his peers, and the judgment must be specially confirmed by the

emperor. No corporal punishment can be inflicted upon him; he is free from personal taxes, recruitment, and having soldiers quartered upon him; he can freely establish manufactures and industrial undertakings of all kinds on his estates; but in the towns, in such cases, he must enter the respective guilds. He is at liberty to sell his own products and manufactures. More than one-half of all the cultivated land belongs to the nobility in fee-simple, and more than one-half of the population of Russia Proper, until recently, were not only their dependents but serfs. The power of this large class, which partly governed the empire, has suffered a heavy loss by the great work of serf emancipation, which leaves the emperor more than ever Autocrat of Russia.

Church and Education.

The established religion of the empire is the Greco-Russian, officially called the Orthodox-Catholic Faith. The Russian Church separated from the See of Rome in 1054, and from the Byzantine patriarchate in 1589. It has its own independent synod, but maintains the relations of a sister Church with the four patriarchates of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The sacred synod, the board of government of the Church, was established with the concurrence of the Russian clergy and the four Eastern patriarchs. There have been three epochs in the government of the Russian Church. At first it had a foreign head, the patriarch in Constantinople, who appointed the Metropolitan of Kief, and afterwards of Moscow; during the second period, commencing in 1589, it was governed by a patriarch appointed by the Tsar, but nearly independent; lastly, the direction of the Church was transferred to the emperor. He is however not the head of the Church in the same sense as the Pope of Rome. The emperor exercises the external functions in a still greater degree than the pontiff; he appoints to every office in the Church, and is restricted only so far as to leave to the bishops and prelates the privilege of proposing candidates; and he transfers and dismisses persons from their offices in certain cases. But he has never claimed the right of deciding theological and dogmatic questions. In the case of any new heresy springing up in Russia, requiring a judgment, the emperor cannot pronounce a decision, but this duty appertains to the synod, and, if the question is critical, the opinion of the four Eastern patriarchs must be consulted, and finally a council has to be convened. The judgment of the Church being once given, the emperor must command its execution. In official documents the emperor never calls himself the Head, but only the Protector or Defender of the Church.*

* Haxthausen, Baron: The Russian Empire, its People, Institutions, and Resources.

the emoluments connected with some of them being so small as to be scarcely more than nominal. The annual assemblies for electing these local representatives are constituted in a a very peculiar manner. Every five houses have the election of one deputy for the communal assembly, and these again choose a delegate for the district assemblies, in the proportion of one man to every ten houses. These representatives elect their own parish officers and discuss and decide all parish affairs, such as the division of the fields, the arrangement of the tenancies, the proper distribution of the taxes, the audit of accounts, the supervision of the recruiting business, the admittance of new members into the commune, petitions and complaints to the Tsar and the ministry, and similar matters. As a rule, these communal assemblies take place regularly three times a year; but they may be called more frequently if business of importance requires it. In conjunction with these assemblies are village tribunals, consisting of two elected members of the commune called 'conscience people.' Injuries and offences of every kind, as well as disputes relating to property, not involving more than five roubles, come under the jurisdiction of these popular tribunals.

The nobles of the empire possess a representation of their own, due to Catherine II. An imperial patent, dated April 21, 1785, bestowed on them an organic constitution upon the German model, borrowed principally from the Baltic provinces. According to this constitution, the nobles living in each province form a corporation under an elected president, or marshal, to whom is joined a government commissioner. The members of this corporation assemble at regular intervals of three years, with liberty to deliberate on any subject they choose, and with the special privilege that the governor of the province, who otherwise rules supreme, shall never be present at their meetings. These parliamentary bodies have their own seals, archives, secretaries, treasuries, and permanent committees, the latter of which unite with deputies of the towns to examine the estimates and allotment of contributions to be made by the con The extensive rights and privileges enjoyed by these are said to be not always exercised in the The more educated members of the Russian taken scarcely any part in the election assemblies, and the whole power has falle of the very imperfectly instructed The chief object of all their political the privileges and rights of their c far greater extent than those poss empire. The Russian nobleman property, and honour, by judg by his peers, and the judgmen

emperor. No corporal punishment can be inflicted upon him; he is free from personal taxes, recruitment, and having soldiers quartered upon him; he can freely establish manufactures and ins trial undertakings of all kinds on his estates; but in the towns, such cases, he must enter the respective guilds. He is at E =ell his own products and manufactures. More than one-da he cultivated land belongs to the nobility in fee-simple. an one-half of the population of Russia Proper, un ere not only their dependents but serfs. The power f ss, which partly governed the empire, has suffered a the great work of serf emancipation, which leaves re than ever Autocrat of Russia.

Church and Education

-e established religion of the empire is the lly called the Orthodox-Catholic Faith T ted from the See of Rome in 1054, and f chate in 1589. It has its own independien e relations of a sister Church with thei tinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and he board of government of the Ch urrence of the Russian clergy and have been three epochs in the At first it had a foreign head appointed the Metrop during the second per by a patriarch appointe y, the direction of t He is however e Pope of R

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blic instruction, the as 87 professors and niversity district are ums; 78 district and cow, founded in 1775, ery nearly 800 pups. It has nine governtion, possessing 2 lyceums, 17 gymnasiunis, rish schools. The university of Dorpor

The points in which the Greco-Russian Church differs from the Roman Catholic faith, are, its denying the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, its prohibiting the celibacy of the clergy, and its authorising all individuals to read and study the Scriptures in their vernacular tongue. The prohibition of celibacy is carried to such an extent, that no priest can perform any spiritual function before he is married, nor after he becomes a widower; and as, by the rules of the Church, he is not allowed to remarry, the death of his wife occasions the cessation of his clerical functions. The priests may, however, on the death of their wives, enter into a convent, and enjoy the privilege of becoming eligible to be dignitaries of the Church. There are in Russia nearly 500 cathedrals and about 29,000 churches attached to the established faith, the latter employing about 70,000 secular or parochial clergymen. There are also about 550 convents, of which 480 are for men and 70 for women. The clergy are either secular or regular-the former consisting of the parochial clergy, and the latter of the higher dignitaries, monks, and priests. The hierarchy is composed of bishops, archbishops, and metropolitans. There are in all 38 dioceses.

The Russian Church formerly possessed immense wealth, but which was partly confiscated by Peter I. and partly by Catherine II. The latter sovereign appropriated the whole movable property of the Church for the use of the State, assigning, in compensation, pensions to the chief ecclesiastical dignitaries. But, with the exception of a few livings in Petersburg, Moscow, and other principal cities, the stipends of the clergy, even when increased by the offerings of the people, and by the perquisites on occasion of births, marriages, and funerals, are quite inadequate to provide for their respectable subsistence. The total number of established clergy, of all ranks and orders, may be taken at about 254,000; and the sum allowed as stipends by Government is so very small, that they are almost wholly dependent on their flocks. The revenue even of the senior metropolitan, the highest dignitary in the hierarchy, does not exceed 700l. a year; and an archimandrite, or abbot, the class next below a bishop, has not generally more than from 40l. to 50l. a year.

With the exception of the restraints laid on the Jews, who are excluded from Russia Proper, almost all religions may be freely professed anywhere in the empire. No member of the Russo-Greek Church is, however, permitted to renounce his religion; and when a marriage takes place between one of its members and a person belonging to another faith, the children must all be brought up in the established faith. Catholics are very numerous in the Polish provinces; there are, also, large numbers of Lutherans, chiefly in the Baltic provinces, about 2,300,000 Mohammedans in Russia in Europe,