Spain now expressed a desire for peace. Accordingly, President McKinley offered peace on the following terms: first, the immediate evacuation of Cuba and the relinquishment of Spanish sovereignty; second, the cession of Porto Rico; and, third, the occupation by the United States of the city, bay, and harbor of Manila pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace which should determine the control, disposition, and government of the Philippines. As the war was fought for Cuba, Spain desired to give up only that island. She was especially anxious to retain Porto Rico, "the last memory of a glorious past." But the United States was the master of the situation and insisted upon taking more than Spain desired to give. To deal with the question President McKinley appointed a peace commission composed of five members, three of whom were United States senators. The commission, holding its sessions in Paris, drew up a treaty that provided: (1) that Spain should relinquish all claim of sovereignty over Cuba, and that the United States should assume obligations for the protection of life and property on the island; (2) that Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines should be ceded to the United States; (3) that the civil and political rights of the inhabitants of the ceded territories should be determined by Congress. In consideration of the fact that the actual conquest of Manila had taken place after peace negotiations had been entered into, it was stipulated in the treaty that Spain should receive in way of an indemnity $20,000,000 for the Philippines. The treaty encountered powerful opposition in the Senate, the attack being directed chiefly against the clause that provided for the acquisition of the Philippines. To take over these islands, it was said, would violate the spirit of American institutions and would lead us into the mad scramble for new lands that was going on at the time. Nevertheless, after a prolonged and animated discussion the treaty was ratified (February 6, 1899) by the narrow margin of one vote more than the required two-thirds majority. The adoption of the treaty marked a turning-point in our history. The policy of "splendid isolation" that we had cherished Turning Policy from the foundation of the republic must now be abandoned, A and the United States must go out in the world and accommo- point date its foreign policy to a new order of things. "For better Foreign or for worse," says P. L. Haworth, "the United States dropped its traditional policy of isolation. . . . The restless energy that had conquered the continent westward to the Pacific had now carried the flag beyond the narrow confines of the western hemisphere." How were these "strange peoples" to be governed? Were they to be treated as dependent colonies, or were they to be governed as it was our custom to govern Territories? In answering these questions Congress-for under the Constitution Congress had full power in the matter (119)—dealt with each of the new possessions singly and gave to each the kind of government it seemed to need. Cuba presented no difficulties, for her status had already been declared by the terms of the intervention (p. 522); she was to have her independence. True to our pledge, the people of the island were allowed to establish a constitutional republic. They were required, however, to incorporate in their constitution a section defining the future relations that should exist between Cuba and the United States. The most important provisions of this section --known as the Platt Amendment-were as follows: (1) that Cuba should never enter into agreements with other powers that would tend to impair her independence; (2) that she should not contract public debts of such size that her ordinary revenues would be insufficient to pay the interest charges and provide for a sinking-fund; (3) that she should permit the intervention of the United States whenever intervention might be necessary to preserve Cuban independence and maintain adequate protection of life, property, and individual liberty." In May, 1902, our control in the island was formally relinquished, and the Cuban Republic began its career as an independent nation. Porto Rico remained under the control of our War Department until May, 1900, when Congress passed the Foraker Act providing a civil government for the island. Under this law Cuba and the Platt Amend ment Porto Rico 100 Statute Miles 200 the executive branch of the Porto Rican government was to be appointed by the President, while the legislative branch was in part to be appointed by the President and in part to be elected by the people of Porto Rico. The government, therefore, was not fully representative in the American sense. Nor were the Porto Ricans granted the full privileges of American citizenship. Under the law of 1900 they were declared to be "citizens of Porto Rico and as such were to be entitled to the protection of the United States"; that is, they were to be neither American citizens nor aliens. "The Porto Rican," says Professor Ogg, "was not an alien and he was not a citizen. . . . He was left, like Mohammed's coffin, dangling between earth and heaven." As years passed, however, Congress became more liberal. By 1917 it had conferred full citizenship upon the Porto Ricans and had given them a very considerabie share in the management of their government. PACIFIC LUZON Dagupan Malolos Manila SOUTH MINDORO CHINA SEA PALAWAN PANAY LEYTE SULU SEA MINDANAO SAMAR CELEBES SEA The Philippines. In dealing with the Philippines the first task was to put down an insurrection led by Don Emilio Aguinaldo, who had led a revolt against the Spanish authority in the islands and had on July 3, 1898, proclaimed a Filipino republic. When the insurgent leader saw that the Americans would not recognize the independence of the Philippines he prepared for an armed conflict with the new masters. On the night of February 2, 1899-two days before the ratification of the treaty-a skirmish, begun by the shot of an American sentry, marked the beginning of hostilities. Of course the Filipinos with their antiquated rifles and wooden cannon could not stand up long against the regular army of the United States. In November, 1899, Aguinaldo was cap tured. The insurgents now lost hope and their forces were disbanded. Guerrilla warfare, however, continued for more than two years. Not until July, 1902, were the islands completely pacified. By this time a civil government for the Philippines had been established. In February, 1899, Congress declared that while the Philippine Islands would not be made an integral part of the territory of the United States, and the Filipinos would not be given full American citizenship, it was nevertheless the intention of the United States (1) to establish in the islands a government suitable to the needs of the inhabitants, (2) to prepare the islands for self-government, and (3) "to make. such disposition of said islands as will best promote the interest of the citizens of the United States and the inhabitants of said islands." What was done in the Philippines accorded very well with the spirit of this declaration. As soon as the force of the insurrection was broken William H. Taft was appointed as the civil governor of the islands. From this time the power of military officers grew less, and public affairs were administered chiefly through the processes of civil government. And they were administered with the view of benefiting the Filipinos. Roads were improved, a system of public schools was established, better methods of farming were introduced. In July, 1902, Congress passed an organic act for the government of the islands. This law extended to the Filipinos most of the constitutional guarantees for the protection of life, liberty, and property, but it withheld the boon of American citizenship. It created the office of governor-general and established four executive departments. It vested the legislative power in a commission consisting of eight members: the governor-general, the four heads of the executive departments, and three native Filipinos. All the executive officers and all the members of the commission were to be appointed by the President of the United States. In the American sense the first legislature was of course no legislature at all. The policy of Congress, however, being a liberal one, the democratic element in the government of the island was allowed to grow The United States in the Philip pines stronger and stronger until at last the Philippine legislature by 1917 had come to consist of two elective branches, a senate, and a house of representatives, the members of both branches being residents of the islands. By this time the Filipinos were beginning to regard even independence as an attainable thing, for Congress in 1916 formally declared it to be the purpose of the United States to give the Philippines their independence as soon as a stable government should be established. "We are trustees for the Filipino people," said President Wilson, "and just as soon as we feel that they can take care of their own affairs without our direct interference and protection, the flag of the United States will again be honored by the fulfilment of a promise." Struggle for new Territory EXPANSION AND THE OPEN DOOR When we went into the Philippines we were brought into contact not only with the Oriental nations but with several European powers. During the last years of the nineteenth century the great nations of Europe were seized with a desire. for expansion. They pushed out into remote regions, and took possession of new territory wherever they could get a foothold. Great Britain, having already established her rule in India, Australia, and New Zealand, acquired vast stretches of territory in Africa. France also spread her power over immense areas in Africa, for the great "dark continent," which Livingstone and Stanley were then bringing into the light, was the rich prize of the nations that were bent on expansion. Germany likewise participated in the expansion movement. extension of the German power began in 1866 when Prussia took possession of Schleswig-Holstein. The Franco-German War resulted in the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine to the German Empire (p. 448). In 1884 Germany entered the field of African colonization, and soon there was a German East Africa and a German Southeast Africa. Thus at the time our flag was raised in the Philippines, the most powerful nations |