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The
Peace

Treaties

California and the Japanese

XLVI

THE WORLD WAR

At the outset of his administration President Wilson was confronted with troublesome problems of foreign policy, and in less than two years after his term began the convulsions of the World War were imparting their violence to the United States, creating a situation more serious than any President since Lincoln had been compelled to face.

A POLICY OF PEACE AND NEUTRALITY

President Wilson, being a great lover of peace, sought to arrive at a peaceful solution of all international problems. His secretary of state, William Jennings Bryan, was also devoted to the cause of peace. Through the industry and advocacy of Bryan many peace treaties were negotiated. The purpose of these treaties was to lessen the probabilities of war by providing for a period of investigation and inquiry, a time for "cooling off" before striking a blow. In each of the peace treaties the United States and the other contracting nation agreed that all disputes between them of every nature whatsoever which diplomacy failed to adjust should be submitted for investigation to an international commission, and should further agree not to declare or begin hostilities during such investigation, which might occupy an entire year, but no longer time unless the two governments should extend the period. Since President Wilson was in entire sympathy with the plan, the negotiation of the peace treaties proceeded rapidly, and by the close of 1913 thirty-one nations, including nearly all the principal powers of the earth, had signified their willingness to bind themselves to the principle of delay and investigation before actual conflict.

Early in his administration President Wilson had to deal with an embarrassing diplomatic question relating to the Japanese in California. The legislature of that State in the spring of 1913 had before it a bill forbidding certain aliens from

holding lands. Since the act would apply almost solely to Japanese immigrants, the ambassador from Japan protested to our State Department against the discrimination. In order to relieve the situation, the President sent Bryan to California to endeavor to secure the postponement of all land-tenure legislature, and to suggest the possibility of a new treaty with Japan. The postponement was not secured, although the law, which eventually passed, was modified to the extent of allowing the Japanese to lease agricultural lands for terms not greater than three years.

During Wilson's first term our power in the Caribbean was enlarged. In 1914, by virtue of a treaty negotiated with Nicaragua, the United States acquired her exclusive right to construct an interoceanic canal by way of the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua, and to maintain a naval base on Fonseca Gulf. In 1916, on the same day on which the treaty with Nicaragua was ratified, Haiti agreed to a treaty that reduced her to a condition of almost complete dependence upon the United States: the customs of the little republic were brought under American control; its expenditures were placed under American supervision; and its constabulary was to be commanded by American officers. Although our Government announced that it was establishing the protectorate with disinterested motives, nevertheless there were vigorous protests on the part of many of the natives of Haiti. Our power in the Caribbean was still further extended by the purchase in 1916 of the Virgin Islands from Denmark. These islands, for which we paid $25,000,000, were secured in order that they might serve as a base for naval operations in the Caribbean.

Nica

ragu

Haiti; the Virgin Islands

Trouble

More important than our dealings with the little islands and republics of the Caribbean was the Mexican question, which arose even before President Wilson was inaugurated. In February, 1913, Francisco Madero, the President of Mexico, was assassinated, whereupon General Victoriano Huerta seized with control of the Mexican Government. The question of recognizing Huerta's authority was at once brought up to the Government at Washington, but President Taft, preferring to leave

Mexico

Waiting

the matter to his successor, declined either to give or formally withhold recognition. President Wilson flatly refused to recognize Huerta on the ground that he was a usurper. This opinion was shared by a large body of Mexicans who were in revolt against the authority of Huerta, the leaders of the revolution being Venustiano Carranza and Francisco Villa. The revolution was accompanied by much bloodshed, and in the turmoil many Americans living in Mexico were killed and their property destroyed. Our Government, therefore, found itself confronted with the problem of protecting the interests of our citizens in a country engaged in civil strife. From the Watchful beginning, President Wilson pursued a policy which he characterized as one of "watchful waiting," his aim being to keep a watchful eye upon American interests in Mexico, but to wait patiently for the revolution to run its course without bringing the United States into the fray. The underlying purpose of the President was to give the Mexicans an opportunity to work out their own political salvation and set up for themselves a stable and constitutional government. The policy of "watchful waiting" was adhered to with great tenacity, but in its immediate results it was disquieting and unsatisfactory. Many times during the revolution American interests suffered because there was no strong hand to protect them, and more than once there was armed intervention that brought little if any relief. In the spring of 1914 several sailors belonging to our navy were arrested by the followers of Huerta at Tampico and were roughly treated. Demands for reparation followed, and since these were not fully complied with, President Wilson sent our fleet against Vera Cruz. The city was quickly captured and was held until November, 1914, when our troops sailed away. The outcome of the struggle was a victory for the revolutionists. In the summer of 1915 Huerta was overthrown. Carranza seized the reins of power, and within a few months he was recognized by the United States and several other countries as the head of the Provisional Government of Mexico. But this did not end the trouble, for in March, 1916, Villa, who by this time had turned against Carranza, led a band of outlaws across

Origins

Great

the Mexican border into New Mexico and killed nine American citizens. A large force of American soldiers was now sent into Mexico to capture and punish Villa and his band. But the punitive expedition accomplished but little, for Villa eluded his pursuers and remained at large. Although Carranza was unable wholly to suppress lawlessness, his Government, nevertheless, gradually acquired a measure of strength and stability. But it was not our next-door neighbor at the south who gave us the most anxiety; our greatest trouble came from over of the the seas. On June 28, 1914, the Archduke Ferdinand of War Austria was assassinated at Serajevo, a city in the Austrian province of Bosnia. The Government of Austria-Hungary, laying the responsibility for the assassination upon Serbia, sent the Serbian Government an ultimatum making demands that were rejected. Austria then (July 28) declared war on Serbia. Russia, being friendly to the Slavic people of the Balkans, immediately mobilized her forces, "solely against Austria-Hungary," with the view of protecting Serbia. Germany, being an ally of Austria-Hungary, demanded on July 30 the instant demobilization of the Russian forces. On August 1 Germany declared war on Russia and two days later on Russia's ally, France. On August 2, Wilhelm II, the German emperor, set in motion his mighty military engine. Intending to deal France a quick and crushing blow, and finding that the most convenient path lay through Belgium, he poured his armies across the boundaries of that little kingdom. This act was violative of a treaty by which his Government was bound, but in the eyes of the German rulers a treaty was a mere "scrap of paper" if it stood in the way of their military plans. The invasion of Belgium provoked a storm of protest in all parts of the world. Great Britain, having demanded of Germany respect for Belgian neutrality and having failed to receive the guarantee, announced on August 5 that war had opened between England and Germany. Six nations had now drawn the sword. The war spread from nation to nation until at last virtually the whole world was drawn into the conflict.

Two days after the outbreak of the war President Wilson

The

Difficulties

of a Neutral Course

issued a formal proclamation of neutrality. On August 18, in an address to the American people, he urged them to be neutral in thought and action. But such strict neutrality was out of the question. A majority of the American people, resenting the invasion of Belgium and hating the militaristic policy of Germany, gave their sympathy to Great Britain and France. On the other hand, there were millions of German-Americans who sympathized with Germany. Then, propaganda interfered with neutrality. Agents of Germany went over the country doing everything they could to turn public opinion to the side of the Central Powers, while the mails were used freely by England to present her side of the question. Still another thing that made neutrality difficult was the trade situation which arose on the ocean. England quickly gained the mastery of the seas and set up a blockade, which prevented American goods from reaching the Central Powers, and, to the extent that she desired, from reaching even some of the neutral powers. But American munitions and food-stuffs could be shipped to France and England and were shipped to these countries in great quantities. Germany protested bitterly against these shipments and accused the United States of discriminating against the Central Powers. As a matter of fact, there was no discrimination. The only reason the Central Powers did not receive munitions and other supplies from America was because their enemies were able to head them off.

But the greatest enemy of neutrality were the German submarines. In May, 1915, one of them attacked the Lusitania, a British merchantman, and without any warning sent the great liner to the bottom of the sea. Of those who lost their lives, more than one hundred were American citizens. According to the rules of international law, no merchant ship, whether a belligerent or a neutral, can lawfully be sunk unless warning has been given and the safety of the passengers on board provided for. The sinking of the Lusitania, therefore, was a breach of the law of nations that our Government could not ignore or condone. President Wilson informed Germany that if her submarines should sink any more merchant ships without

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